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Polymers
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Advances in Polymer Applied in Batteries and Capacitors
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Advances in Polymer Applied in Batteries and Capacitors

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Applications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 July 2024 | Viewed by 15307

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Kabir Oyedotun

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Physics, Institute of Applied Materials, SARChI Chair in Carbon Technology and Materials, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0028, South Africa
Interests: supercapacitors; electrochemistry; LIBs; carbon materials; nanomaterials; solid electrolytes; materials synthesis/characterization
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Abdulhakeem Bello

E-Mail Website1 Website2
Guest Editor
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, African University of Science and Technology, Abuja, Nigeria
Interests: supercapacitors; solid electrolytes; libs; carbon materials; nanomaterials; materials characterization

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Due to their structural makeup and distinctive qualities, polymers are regarded as the most promising pseudo-capacitative substance. Their homogeneous conjugated backbones make effective electron delocalization possible along the whole polymer chain. Through redox reactions, also referred to as doping and de-doping, they store and deliver charges. The materials can change their conductivity and function as insulators, semiconductors, or conductors thanks to this reversible mechanism. Ions are transported to the polymer backbone during the oxidation or doping process, whereas they are released into the solution during the reduction or de-doping process. Since the charging now takes place across the majority of the material and is not only a surface occurrence as it is with carbon materials, polymers are able to have a higher specific capacitance. 

This Special Issue is focused on the most recent research advances on polymer materials for batteries’ and supercapacitors’ applications.

Dr. Kabir Oyedotun
Dr. Abdulhakeem Bello
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • polymers
  • conducting polymers
  • synthesis of polymer materials
  • synthetic polymers
  • biopolymer
  • redox activity
  • electrode
  • electrolyte
  • separator
  • batteries
  • supercapacitors

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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11 pages, 19200 KiB  
Article
Preparation and Properties of Gel Polymer Electrolytes with Li1.5Al0.5Ge1.5(PO4)3 and Li6.46La3Zr1.46Ta0.54O12 by UV Curing Process
by Xinghua Liang, Qiankun Hun, Lingxiao Lan, Bing Zhang, Zhikun Chen and Yujiang Wang
Polymers 2024, 16(4), 464; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16040464 - 7 Feb 2024
Viewed by 714
Abstract
Poly (vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) (PVDF-HFP)-based gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs) are considered a promising electrolyte candidate for polymer lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) because of their free-standing shape, versatility, security, flexibility, lightweight, reliability, and so on. However, due to problems such as low ionic conductivity, PVDF-HFP can [...] Read more.
Poly (vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) (PVDF-HFP)-based gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs) are considered a promising electrolyte candidate for polymer lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) because of their free-standing shape, versatility, security, flexibility, lightweight, reliability, and so on. However, due to problems such as low ionic conductivity, PVDF-HFP can only be used on a small scale when used as a substrate alone. To overcome the above shortcomings, GPEs were designed and synthesized by a UV curing process by adding NASICON-type Li1.5Al0.5Ge1.5(PO4)3 (LAGP) and garnet-type Li6.46La3Zr1.46Ta0.54O12 (LLZTO) to PVDF-HFP. Experimentally, GPEs with 10% weight LLZTO in a PVDF-HFP matrix had an ionic conductivity of up to 3 × 10−4 S cm−1 at 25 °C. When assembled into LiFePO4/GPEs/Li batteries, a discharge-specific capacity of 81.5 mAh g−1 at a current density of 1 C and a capacity retention rate of 98.1% after 100 cycles at a current density of 0.2 C occurred. Therefore, GPEs added to LLZTO have a broad application prospect regarding rechargeable lithium-ion batteries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Polymer Applied in Batteries and Capacitors)
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21 pages, 3292 KiB  
Article
Structure Optimization of Some Single-Ion Conducting Polymer Electrolytes with Increased Conductivity Used in “Beyond Lithium-Ion” Batteries
by Dan Butnicu, Daniela Ionescu and Maria Kovaci
Polymers 2024, 16(3), 368; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16030368 - 29 Jan 2024
Viewed by 815
Abstract
Simulation techniques implemented with the HFSS program were used for structure optimization from the point of view of increasing the conductivity of the batteries’ electrolytes. Our analysis was focused on reliable “beyond lithium-ion” batteries, using single-ion conducting polymer electrolytes, in a gel variant. [...] Read more.
Simulation techniques implemented with the HFSS program were used for structure optimization from the point of view of increasing the conductivity of the batteries’ electrolytes. Our analysis was focused on reliable “beyond lithium-ion” batteries, using single-ion conducting polymer electrolytes, in a gel variant. Their conductivity can be increased by tuning and correlating the internal parameters of the structure. Materials in the battery system were modeled at the nanoscale with HFSS: electrodes–electrolyte–moving ions. Some new materials reported in the literature were studied, like poly(ethylene glycol) dimethacrylate-x-styrene sulfonate (PEGDMA-SS) or PU-TFMSI for the electrolyte; p-dopable polytriphenyl amine for cathodes in Na-ion batteries or sulfur cathodes in Mg-ion or Al-ion batteries. The coarse-grained molecular dynamics model combined with the atomistic model were both considered for structural simulation at the molecular level. Issues like interaction forces at the nanoscopic scale, charge carrier mobility, conductivity in the cell, and energy density of the electrodes were implied in the analysis. The results were compared to the reported experimental data, to confirm the method and for error analysis. For the real structures of gel polymer electrolytes, this method can indicate that their conductivity increases up to 15%, and even up to 26% in the resonant cases, via parameter correlation. The tuning and control of material properties becomes a problem of structure optimization, solved with non-invasive simulation methods, in agreement with the experiment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Polymer Applied in Batteries and Capacitors)
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16 pages, 3575 KiB  
Article
Green Energy Storage: Chitosan-Avocado Starch Hydrogels for a Novel Generation of Zinc Battery Electrolytes
by María I. Cruz-Balaz, María Fernanda Bósquez-Cáceres, Anabel D. Delgado, Noé Arjona, Vivian Morera Córdova, Lorena Álvarez-Contreras and Juan P. Tafur
Polymers 2023, 15(22), 4398; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15224398 - 14 Nov 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1364
Abstract
Meeting the ever-increasing global energy demands through sustainable and environmentally friendly means is a paramount challenge. In response to this imperative, this study is dedicated to the development of biopolymer electrolytes, which hold promise for improving the efficiency, safety, and biodegradability of energy [...] Read more.
Meeting the ever-increasing global energy demands through sustainable and environmentally friendly means is a paramount challenge. In response to this imperative, this study is dedicated to the development of biopolymer electrolytes, which hold promise for improving the efficiency, safety, and biodegradability of energy systems. The present study aims to evaluate hydrogels synthesized from chitosan biopolymer and starch from avocado seed residues in different ratios, and dried using freeze-thawing and freeze-drying techniques. Epichlorohydrin was used as a chemical crosslinker to create a suitable degree of swelling using an ionic solution. Physical freezing crosslinking strategies such as freezing–thawing and freezing–drying were performed to generate a denser porous structure in the polymer matrix. Subsequently, synthesized electrolytes were immersed in 12 M KOH solution to improve their electrochemical properties. The effect of the different ratios of starch in the hydrogels on the structural properties of the materials was evaluated using characterization techniques such as FTIR and XRD, which allowed to confirm the crosslinking between chitosan and starch. The electrochemical performance of the hydrogels is assessed using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. A maximum conductivity value of 0.61 S·cm−1 was achieved at room temperature. The designed materials were tested in prototype zinc–air batteries; their specific capacity value was 1618 mA h·g−1, and their obtained power density was 90 mW·cm−2. These substantial findings unequivocally underscore the potential of the synthesized hydrogels as highly promising electrolytes for the application in zinc–air battery systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Polymer Applied in Batteries and Capacitors)
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14 pages, 4481 KiB  
Article
Structure Dependent Electrochemical Behaviors of Hard Carbon Anode Materials Derived from Natural Polymer for Next-Generation Sodium Ion Battery
by Jungpil Kim, Sang-Don Han, Bonwook Koo, Sang-Hyun Lee and Junghoon Yang
Polymers 2023, 15(22), 4373; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15224373 - 10 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1576
Abstract
Hard carbons are one of the most promising anode materials for next-generation sodium-ion batteries due to their high reversible capacity, long cycle life, and low cost. The advantage in terms of price of hard carbons can be further improved by using cheaper resources [...] Read more.
Hard carbons are one of the most promising anode materials for next-generation sodium-ion batteries due to their high reversible capacity, long cycle life, and low cost. The advantage in terms of price of hard carbons can be further improved by using cheaper resources such as biomass waste as precursors. Lignin is one of the richest natural bio-polymer in the earth which can be obtained from woods. As the lignin has three-dimensional amorphous polymeric structure, it is considered as good precursor for producing carbonaceous materials under proper carbonization processes for energy storage devices. In this study, structural properties of lignin-derived hard carbons such as interlayer spacing, degree of disorder and surface defects are controlled. Specifically, lignin-derived hard carbons were synthesized at 1000 °C, 1250 °C, and 1500 °C, and it was confirmed that the structure gradually changed from a disordered structure to ordered structure through X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Hard carbons exhibit sloping regions at high voltage and plateau region at low voltage during the electrochemical processes for sodium ions. As the heat treatment temperature increases, the contribution to the overall reversible capacity of the sloping region decreases and the contribution of the plateau region increases. This trend confirms that it affects reversible capacity, rate-capability, and cycling stability, meaning that an understanding of structural properties and related electrochemical properties is necessary when developing hard carbon as a negative electrode material for sodium ion batteries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Polymer Applied in Batteries and Capacitors)
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11 pages, 5044 KiB  
Article
Aqueous Supramolecular Binder for High-Performance Lithium–Sulfur Batteries
by Ruliang Liu, Jiaxin Ou, Lijun Xie, Yubing Liang, Xinyi Lai, Zhaoxia Deng and Wei Yin
Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2599; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122599 - 7 Jun 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1396
Abstract
Developing an advanced electrode structure is highly important for obtaining lithium sulfur (Li–S) batteries with long life, low cost, and environmental friendliness. Some bottlenecks, such as large volume deformation and environmental pollution caused by the electrode preparation process, are still hindering the practical [...] Read more.
Developing an advanced electrode structure is highly important for obtaining lithium sulfur (Li–S) batteries with long life, low cost, and environmental friendliness. Some bottlenecks, such as large volume deformation and environmental pollution caused by the electrode preparation process, are still hindering the practical application of Li–S batteries. In this work, a new water-soluble, green, and environmentally friendly supramolecular binder (HUG) is successfully synthesized by modifying natural biopolymer (guar gum, GG) with HDI-UPy (cyanate containing pyrimidine groups). HUG can effectively resist electrode bulk deformation through a the unique three-dimensional nanonet-structure formed via covalent bonds and multiple hydrogen bonds. In addition, abundant polar groups of HUG have good adsorption properties for polysulfide and can inhibit the shuttle movement of polysulfide ions. Therefore, Li–S cell with HUG exhibits a high reversible capacity of 640 mAh g−1 after 200 cycles at 1C with a Coulombic efficiency of 99%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Polymer Applied in Batteries and Capacitors)
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16 pages, 7241 KiB  
Article
Centrifugally Spun PVA/PVP Based B, N, F Doped Carbon Nanofiber Electrodes for Sodium Ion Batteries
by Meltem Yanilmaz, Elham Abdolrazzaghian, Lei Chen, Juran Kim and Jung Joong Kim
Polymers 2022, 14(24), 5541; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14245541 - 18 Dec 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2224
Abstract
Owing to their high electrical conductivity, high surface area, low density, high thermal stability, and chemical stability, carbon nanofibers have been used in many fields, including energy storage, electromagnetic shielding, filtering, composites, sensors, and tissue engineering. Considering the environmental impact of petroleum-based polymers, [...] Read more.
Owing to their high electrical conductivity, high surface area, low density, high thermal stability, and chemical stability, carbon nanofibers have been used in many fields, including energy storage, electromagnetic shielding, filtering, composites, sensors, and tissue engineering. Considering the environmental impact of petroleum-based polymers, it is vital to fabricate carbon nanofibers from environmentally-friendly materials using fast and safe techniques. PVA/PVP nanofibers were fabricated via centrifugal spinning and the effects of variations in the PVP content on the morphology and thermal properties of PVA/PVP-blend nanofibers were studied using SEM and DSC analyses. Moreover, the effects of carbonization conditions, including stabilization time, stabilization temperature, carbonization time, and carbonization temperature on the morphology and carbon yield, were investigated. Centrifugally spun PVA/PVP-based carbon nanofiber electrodes with an average fiber diameter around 300 nm are reported here for the first time. Furthermore, centrifugally spun PVA/PVP-based B, N, F-doped carbon nanofibers were fabricated by combining centrifugal spinning and heat treatment. Through B, N, F doping, CNFs demonstrated a high reversible capacity of more than 150 mAh/g in 200 cycles with stable cycling performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Polymer Applied in Batteries and Capacitors)
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11 pages, 2522 KiB  
Article
Capacitors Based on Polypyrrole Nanowire Electrodeposits
by A. M. R. Ramírez, M. A. del Valle, E. Ortega, F. R. Díaz and M. A. Gacitúa
Polymers 2022, 14(24), 5476; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14245476 - 14 Dec 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1430
Abstract
The electrochemical polymerization of polypyrrole nanowires is carried out using potentiodynamic and galvanostatic methods in order to enhance the performance of the modified electrodes as capacitor devices. The electrochemical, spectroscopic, and morphological properties are determined through cyclic voltammetry, Raman spectroscopy and scanning electron [...] Read more.
The electrochemical polymerization of polypyrrole nanowires is carried out using potentiodynamic and galvanostatic methods in order to enhance the performance of the modified electrodes as capacitor devices. The electrochemical, spectroscopic, and morphological properties are determined through cyclic voltammetry, Raman spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy, respectively, corroborating the presence of PPy-nw in dimensions of 30 nm in diameter. Characterization as a capacitor revealed that the nanowire structure enhances key parameters such as specific capacitance with 60 times greater value than bulk polymer modification, in addition to a significant increase in stability. In this way, it is verified that electrodes modified with polypyrrole nanowires obtained in situ by electrochemical methods constitute an excellent candidate for the development of capacitors Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Polymer Applied in Batteries and Capacitors)
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Review

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19 pages, 3557 KiB  
Review
Recent Progress in Covalent Organic Frameworks for Cathode Materials
by Chi Wang, Yuchao Tian, Wuhong Chen, Xiaochun Lin, Jizhao Zou, Dongju Fu, Xiao Yu, Ruling Qiu, Junwei Qiu and Shaozhong Zeng
Polymers 2024, 16(5), 687; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16050687 - 2 Mar 2024
Viewed by 1060
Abstract
Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) are constructed from small organic molecules through reversible covalent bonds, and are therefore considered a special type of polymer. Small organic molecules are divided into nodes and connectors based on their roles in the COF’s structure. The connector generally [...] Read more.
Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) are constructed from small organic molecules through reversible covalent bonds, and are therefore considered a special type of polymer. Small organic molecules are divided into nodes and connectors based on their roles in the COF’s structure. The connector generally forms reversible covalent bonds with the node through two reactive end groups. The adjustment of the length of the connector facilitates the adjustment of pore size. Due to the diversity of organic small molecules and reversible covalent bonds, COFs have formed a large family since their synthesis in 2005. Among them, a type of COF containing redox active groups such as –C=O–, –C=N–, and –N=N– has received widespread attention in the field of energy storage. The ordered crystal structure of COFs ensures the ordered arrangement and consistent size of pores, which is conducive to the formation of unobstructed ion channels, giving these COFs a high-rate performance and a long cycle life. The voltage and specific capacity jointly determine the energy density of cathode materials. For the COFs’ cathode materials, the voltage plateau of their active sites’ VS metallic lithium is mostly between 2 and 3 V, which has great room for improvement. However, there is currently no feasible strategy for this. Therefore, previous studies mainly improved the theoretical specific capacity of the COFs’ cathode materials by increasing the number of active sites. We have summarized the progress in the research on these types of COFs in recent years and found that the redox active functional groups of these COFs can be divided into six subcategories. According to the different active functional groups, these COFs are also divided into six subcategories. Here, we summarize the structure, synthesis unit, specific surface area, specific capacity, and voltage range of these cathode COFs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Polymer Applied in Batteries and Capacitors)
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27 pages, 3536 KiB  
Review
Polymeric Binder Design for Sustainable Lithium-Ion Battery Chemistry
by Juhee Yoon, Jeonghun Lee, Hyemin Kim, Jihyeon Kim and Hyoung-Joon Jin
Polymers 2024, 16(2), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16020254 - 16 Jan 2024
Viewed by 2403
Abstract
The design of binders plays a pivotal role in achieving enduring high power in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and extending their overall lifespan. This review underscores the indispensable characteristics that a binder must possess when utilized in LIBs, considering factors such as electrochemical, thermal, [...] Read more.
The design of binders plays a pivotal role in achieving enduring high power in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and extending their overall lifespan. This review underscores the indispensable characteristics that a binder must possess when utilized in LIBs, considering factors such as electrochemical, thermal, and dispersion stability, compatibility with electrolytes, solubility in solvents, mechanical properties, and conductivity. In the case of anode materials, binders with robust mechanical properties and elasticity are imperative to uphold electrode integrity, particularly in materials subjected to substantial volume changes. For cathode materials, the selection of a binder hinges on the crystal structure of the cathode material. Other vital considerations in binder design encompass cost effectiveness, adhesion, processability, and environmental friendliness. Incorporating low-cost, eco-friendly, and biodegradable polymers can significantly contribute to sustainable battery development. This review serves as an invaluable resource for comprehending the prerequisites of binder design in high-performance LIBs and offers insights into binder selection for diverse electrode materials. The findings and principles articulated in this review can be extrapolated to other advanced battery systems, charting a course for developing next-generation batteries characterized by enhanced performance and sustainability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Polymer Applied in Batteries and Capacitors)
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27 pages, 3782 KiB  
Review
A Review of Solid-State Proton–Polymer Batteries: Materials and Characterizations
by M. S. A. Rani, M. N. F. Norrrahim, V. F. Knight, N. M. Nurazzi, K. Abdan and S. H. Lee
Polymers 2023, 15(19), 4032; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15194032 - 9 Oct 2023
Viewed by 1279
Abstract
The ever-increasing global population necessitates a secure and ample energy supply, the majority of which is derived from fossil fuels. However, due to the immense energy demand, the exponential depletion of these non-renewable energy sources is both unavoidable and inevitable in the approaching [...] Read more.
The ever-increasing global population necessitates a secure and ample energy supply, the majority of which is derived from fossil fuels. However, due to the immense energy demand, the exponential depletion of these non-renewable energy sources is both unavoidable and inevitable in the approaching century. Therefore, exploring the use of polymer electrolytes as alternatives in proton-conducting batteries opens an intriguing research field, as demonstrated by the growing number of publications on the subject. Significant progress has been made in the production of new and more complex polymer-electrolyte materials. Specific characterizations are necessary to optimize these novel materials. This paper provides a detailed overview of these characterizations, as well as recent advancements in characterization methods for proton-conducting polymer electrolytes in solid-state batteries. Each characterization is evaluated based on its objectives, experimental design, a summary of significant results, and a few noteworthy case studies. Finally, we discuss future characterizations and advances. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Polymer Applied in Batteries and Capacitors)
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