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3D Printing Technology and Additive Manufacturing in Polymer Materials

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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Processing and Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 25 July 2024 | Viewed by 5684

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Mahmoud Moradi

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Guest Editor

Faculty of Arts, Science and Technology, University of Northampton, Northampton NN1 5PH, UK
Interests: laser materials processing; additive manufacturing; welding; design of experiments (DOE)
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Saeed Farahani

E-Mail Website
Co-Guest Editor

School of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering, Clemson University, Greenville, SC 29607, USA
Interests: industry 4.0; industrial IoT; SCADA systems; acquisition and analytics of manufacturing data; physics-regulated AI; data-driven modeling; hybrid manufacturing processes; plastics and composites manufacturing; injection molding; sheet metal forming; specialized tooling
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Additive Manufacturing (AM) is a cutting-edge technology that is rapidly altering the landscape of manufacturing and is considered to be a revolution in the production industry. The AM process involves several methods for both metals and non-metals. Polymeric materials, smart polymers, and polymer composites are a significant area of interest within the field of 3D printing. Polymer additive manufacturing refers to the process of creating three-dimensional objects layer-by-layer by utilizing polymers or plastics. The methods employed in order to complete polymer additive manufacturing are as follows: Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), Stereolithography (SLA), Digital Light Processing (DLP), Material Jetting, Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), and Binder Jetting. AM has a multitude of applications, including producing new parts and repairing existing ones. The benefits of AM include automation, minimized costs, rapid prototyping, and the ability to customize complex and composite structures.

The objective of this Special Issue is to compile high-quality manuscripts that detail research and developments related to the various techniques applied to realize additive manufacturing using polymeric materials. Hybrid techniques are often employed to overcome challenges in AM, and they are considered to be practical methods. Additionally, the post-processing of additively manufactured polymeric parts is another interesting area of focus that this Special Issue aims to address.

Dr. Mahmoud Moradi
Dr. Saeed Farahani
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

additive manufacturing
3D printing
4D printing
polymer materials
post processing of 3D printed parts
hybrid techniques of 3D printed parts
numerical simulation of polymer AM

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

18 pages, 6776 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Trueness Evaluation of 3D-Printed Dental Model Made of Photopolymer Resin: Use of Special Structurized Dental Model

by Aonan Wen, Ning Xiao, Yujia Zhu, Zixiang Gao, Qingzhao Qin, Shenyao Shan, Wenbo Li, Yuchun Sun, Yong Wang and Yijiao Zhao

Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1083; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081083 - 12 Apr 2024

Viewed by 432

Abstract

(1) Background: Various 3D printers are available for dental practice; however, a comprehensive accuracy evaluation method to effectively guide practitioners is lacking. This in vitro study aimed to propose an optimized method to evaluate the spatial trueness of a 3D-printed dental model made of photopolymer resin based on a special structurized dental model, and provide the preliminary evaluation results of six 3D printers. (2) Methods: A structurized dental model comprising several geometrical configurations was designed based on dental crown and arch measurement data reported in previous studies. Ninety-six feature sizes can be directly measured on this original model with minimized manual measurement errors. Six types of photo-curing 3D printers, including Objet30 Pro using the Polyjet technique, Projet 3510 HD Plus using the Multijet technique, Perfactory DDP and DLP 800d using the DLP technique, Form2 and Form3 using the SLA technique, and each printer’s respective 3D-printable dental model materials, were used to fabricate one set of physical models each. Regarding the feature sizes of the simulated dental crowns and dental arches, linear measurements were recorded. The scanned digital models were compared with the design data, and 3D form errors (including overall 3D deviation; flatness, parallelism, and perpendicularity errors) were measured. (3) Results: The lowest overall 3D deviation, flatness, parallelism, and perpendicularity errors were noted for the models printed using the Objet30 Pro (overall value: 45 μm), Form3 (0.061 ± 0.019 mm), Objet30 Pro (0.138 ± 0.068°), and Projet 3510 HD Plus (0.095 ± 0.070°), respectively. In color difference maps, different deformation patterns were observed in the printed models. The feature size proved most accurate for the Objet30 Pro fabricated models (occlusal plane error: 0.02 ± 0.36%, occlusogingival direction error: −0.06 ± 0.09%). (4) Conclusions: The authors investigated a novel evaluation approach for the spatial trueness of a 3D-printed dental model made of photopolymer resin based on a structurized dental model. This method can objectively and comprehensively evaluate the spatial trueness of 3D-printed dental models and has a good repeatability and generalizability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Technology and Additive Manufacturing in Polymer Materials)

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20 pages, 4159 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving the 3D Printability and Mechanical Performance of Biorenewable Soybean Oil-Based Photocurable Resins

by Marius Bodor, Aurora Lasagabáster-Latorre, Goretti Arias-Ferreiro, María Sonia Dopico-García and María-José Abad

Polymers 2024, 16(7), 977; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16070977 - 3 Apr 2024

Viewed by 566

Abstract

The general requirement of replacing petroleum-derived plastics with renewable resources is particularly challenging for new technologies such as the additive manufacturing of photocurable resins. In this work, the influence of mono- and bifunctional reactive diluents on the printability and performance of resins based on acrylated epoxidized soybean oil (AESO) was explored. Polyethylene glycol di(meth)acrylates of different molecular weights were selected as diluents based on the viscosity and mechanical properties of their binary mixtures with AESO. Ternary mixtures containing 60% AESO, polyethylene glycol diacrylate (PEGDA) and polyethyleneglycol dimethacrylate (PEG200DMA) further improved the mechanical properties, water resistance and printability of the resin. Specifically, the terpolymer AESO/PEG575/PEG200DMA 60/20/20 (wt.%) improved the modulus (16% increase), tensile strength (63% increase) and %deformation at the break (21% increase), with respect to pure AESO. The enhancement of the printability provided by the reactive diluents was proven by Jacobs working curves and the improved accuracy of printed patterns. The proposed formulation, with a biorenewable carbon content of 67%, can be used as the matrix of innovative resins with unrestricted applicability in the electronics and biomedical fields. However, much effort must be done to increase the array of bio-based raw materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Technology and Additive Manufacturing in Polymer Materials)

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16 pages, 4242 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Direct Pellet Three-Dimensional Printing of Polybutylene Adipate-co-Terephthalate for a Greener Future

by Armin Karimi, Davood Rahmatabadi and Mostafa Baghani

Polymers 2024, 16(2), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16020267 - 18 Jan 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 790

Abstract

The widespread use of conventional plastics in various industries has resulted in increased oil consumption and environmental pollution. To address these issues, a combination of plastic recycling and the use of biodegradable plastics is essential. Among biodegradable polymers, poly butylene adipate-co-terephthalate (PBAT) has attracted significant attention due to its favorable mechanical properties and biodegradability. In this study, we investigated the potential of using PBAT for direct pellet printing, eliminating the need for filament conversion. To determine the optimal printing temperature, three sets of tensile specimens were 3D-printed at varying nozzle temperatures, and their mechanical properties and microstructure were analyzed. Additionally, dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) was conducted to evaluate the thermal behavior of the printed PBAT. Furthermore, we designed and printed two structures with different infill percentages (40% and 60%) to assess their compressive strength and energy absorption properties. DMTA revealed that PBAT’s glass–rubber transition temperature is approximately −25 °C. Our findings demonstrate that increasing the nozzle temperature enhances the mechanical properties of PBAT. Notably, the highest nozzle temperature of 200 °C yielded remarkable results, with an elongation of 1379% and a tensile strength of 7.5 MPa. Moreover, specimens with a 60% infill density exhibited superior compressive strength (1338 KPa) and energy absorption compared with those with 40% infill density (1306 KPa). The SEM images showed that with an increase in the nozzle temperature, the quality of the print was greatly improved, and it was difficult to find microholes or even a layered structure for the sample printed at 200 °C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Technology and Additive Manufacturing in Polymer Materials)

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18 pages, 4908 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Properties of Hyper-Elastic-Graded Triply Periodic Minimal Surfaces

by Christopher W. Haney and Hector R. Siller

Polymers 2023, 15(23), 4475; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15234475 - 21 Nov 2023

Viewed by 743

Abstract

The mechanical behaviors of three distinct lattice structures—Diamond, Gyroid, and Schwarz—synthesized through vat polymerization, were meticulously analyzed. This study aimed to elucidate the intricacies of these structures in terms of their stress–strain responses, energy absorption, and recovery characteristics. Utilizing the described experiments and analytical approaches, it was discerned, via the described experimental and analytical procedure, that the AM lattices showcased mechanical properties and stress–strain behaviors that notably surpassed theoretical predictions, pointing to substantial disparities between conventional models and experimental outcomes. The Diamond lattice displayed superior stiffness with higher average loading and unloading moduli and heightened energy absorption and dissipation rates, followed by the Gyroid and Schwarz lattices. The Schwarz lattice showed the most consistent mechanical response, while the Diamond and Gyroid showed capabilities of reaching larger strains and stresses. All uniaxial cyclic compressive tests were performed at room temperature with no dwell times. The efficacy of hyper-elastic-graded models significantly outperformed projections offered by traditional Ashby–Gibson models, emphasizing the need for more refined models to accurately delineate the behaviors of additively manufactured lattices in advanced engineering applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Technology and Additive Manufacturing in Polymer Materials)

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21 pages, 5608 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Overview and Comparison of PLA Filaments Commercially Available in Europe for FFF Technology

by Vladislav Andronov, Libor Beránek, Vojtěch Krůta, Lucie Hlavůňková and Zdeňka Jeníková

Polymers 2023, 15(14), 3065; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15143065 - 17 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1568

Abstract

This study presents a comprehensive techno-economic analysis of PLA materials for fused filament fabrication (FFF) from eight European manufacturers. The comparison involved rigorous experimental assessments of the mechanical properties, dimensional accuracy, and print quality using standardized methods and equipment such as tensile and CT testing. What makes this study unique is the consistent methodology applied, considering factors such as material color, printing temperature, printing orientation, filament diameter, and printer selection, to ensure meaningful and reliable results. Contrary to the common belief that a higher price implies better quality, the study revealed that the second cheapest PLA material achieved the best overall performance within the methodology employed. The study also confirmed certain observations, such as the influence of printing orientation and geometry on dimensional accuracy and mechanical properties, as well as the significant disparities between manufacturer-provided values and actual measured mechanical properties, highlighting the importance of experimental verification. Hence, the findings of this study hold value not only for the scientific community but also for hobbyist printers and beginners in the 3D printing realm seeking guidance in material selection for their projects. Furthermore, the methodology employed in this research can be adapted for evaluating a broad range of other 3D printing materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Technology and Additive Manufacturing in Polymer Materials)

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14 pages, 2928 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Study of the Effect of High Gravity in Material Extrusion System and Polymer Characteristics during Filament Fabrication

by Xin Jiang and Ryo Koike

Polymers 2023, 15(14), 3037; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15143037 - 13 Jul 2023

Viewed by 990

Abstract

Polymer science plays a crucial role in the understanding and numerical study of material extrusion processes that have revolutionized additive manufacturing (AM). This study investigated the impact of high-gravity conditions on material extrusion and conducted a numerical study by referring to the development of a high-gravity material extrusion system (HG-MEX). In this study, we evaluated the polymeric characteristics of HG-MEX. By analyzing the interplay between polymer behavior and gravity, we provide insights into the effects of high gravity on extrusion processes, including filament flow, material deposition, and the resulting fabrication characteristics. The established numerical study of high-gravity material extrusion in additive manufacturing is a meaningful and valuable approach for improving the quality and efficiency of the process. This study is unique in that it incorporates material surface characteristics to represent the performance and contact with polymer science in additive manufacturing. The findings presented herein contribute to a broader understanding of polymer science and its practical implications for HG-MEX under various gravitational conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Technology and Additive Manufacturing in Polymer Materials)

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