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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 April 2018) | Viewed by 91559

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Gert Heinrich

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Guest Editor

1. Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., 01069 Dresden, Germany
2. Faculty of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Technische Universität Dresden, 01069 Dresden, Germany
Interests: polymer nanocomposites; friction and adhesion of polymer systems, wear; fracture mechanical characterization and modelling of crack formation and propagation in elastomers; statistical-mechanics of polymer networks, material laws, engineering applications; rubber elasticity and viscoelasticity of filled polymer networks; filler-polymer and filler-filler interactions in elastomers: modelling, testing, engineering applications; tire physics, mechanics and engineering (e.g. traction and braking, road-tire interactions), advanced tire materials compounding and testing
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Prof. Dr. Joey L. Mead

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Guest Editor

Department of Plastics Engineering, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA 01854, USA
Interests: rubber technology; thermoplastic elastomers; design, properties and processing of elastomers, nano materials; mechanical behavior of elastomers and polymers; interfacial properties of fiber reinforced composites; structure-property relationships, recycling of rubber and elastomeric barrier materials

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue focuses on the current state-of-the-art of elastomers for several applications. The main characteristic of elastomer materials is the high elongation and (entropy) elasticity of these materials. The use of filled elastomers, especially of new kinds of elastomer nano-composites, is currently of interest for rubber technologies. It enables widespread application in engineering fields, especially for modern tire technologies, as well as for medical applications or consumer goods. Elastomers also find utility for a range of biomaterial applications. Bioelastomers are widely available in nature and have been shown to have specific properties often far superior to their synthetic counterparts. All elastomers share typical features such as entropy driven elasticity, the presence of entanglements, and topological constraints of network chain conformations. These features still offer fascinating scientific challenges in polymer network synthesis, experimental and theoretical physics of polymer networks, and in modeling of elastomeric solids.

Papers are sought that discuss the latest research in the area or summarize selected areas in the field. The scope of the Special Issue encompasses frontier-of-science contributions in synthesis, characterization, and modelling of elastomers. Of particular interest are new structures and functionalities incorporated into elastomers leading to enhanced properties of crosslinked elastomeric materials. Examples include conductive elastomers, biomimetic mechanically adaptive elastomers, bio-elastomers, photosensitive and light controlled elastomers, elastomers with autonomous self-healing properties, and other novel materials.

Prof. Dr. Gert Heinrich
Prof. Dr. Joey L. Mead
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Elastomer nanocomposites
Conductive elastomers
Bio-elastomers
Light-controllable elastomers
Elastomers with self-healing properties
Smart and adaptive elastomers
Non-crosslinked ‘olympic‘ elastomers
Elastomers for future tire technologies
Advanced modeling and simulation of elastomers
Cutting-edge characterization of elastomers

Published Papers (14 papers)

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Research

25 pages, 19447 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Limitations of Viscoelastic Constitutive Models for Carbon-Black Reinforced Rubber in Medium Dynamic Strains and Medium Strain Rates

by Francesca Carleo, Ettore Barbieri, Roly Whear and James J. C. Busfield

Polymers 2018, 10(9), 988; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10090988 - 04 Sep 2018

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 6705

Abstract

Modelling the viscoelastic behavior of rubber for use in component design remains a challenge. Most of the literature does not consider the typical regimes encountered by anti-vibration devices that are deformed to medium dynamic strains (0.5 to 3.5) at medium strain rates (0.5/s to 10/s). Previous studies have either focused on the behaviour at small strains and small strain rates or in fast loading conditions that result in low cycle fatigue or tearing phenomena. There is a lack of understanding of the dynamic response of natural rubber suspension components when used in real vehicle applications. This paper presents a review of popular viscoelastic nonlinear constitutive models and their ability to model the mechanical behaviour of typical elastomer materials such as Natural Rubber (NR) incorporating different PHR (Parts per Hundred Rubber, XX) of carbon black. The range of strain and strain rate are typical for the materials used in rubber suspensions when operating in severe service operating conditions, such as over rough terrain or over pot-holes. The cyclic strain is applied at different amplitudes and different strain rates in this medium strain range. Despite the availability of many models in the literature, our study reports that none of the existing models can fit the data satisfactorily over a wide range of conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elastomers)

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14 pages, 5663 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reversible Actuation Ability upon Light Stimulation of the Smart Systems with Controllably Grafted Graphene Oxide with Poly (Glycidyl Methacrylate) and PDMS Elastomer: Effect of Compatibility and Graphene Oxide Reduction on the Photo-Actuation Performance

by Josef Osicka, Miroslav Mrlik, Marketa Ilcikova, Barbora Hanulikova, Pavel Urbanek, Michal Sedlacik and Jaroslav Mosnacek

Polymers 2018, 10(8), 832; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10080832 - 28 Jul 2018

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4563

Abstract

This study is focused on the controllable reduction of the graphene oxide (GO) during the surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization technique of glycidyl methacrylate (GMA). The successful modification was confirmed using TGA-FTIR analysis and TEM microscopy observation of the polymer shell. The simultaneous reduction of the GO particles was confirmed indirectly via TGA and directly via Raman spectroscopy and electrical conductivity investigations. Enhanced compatibility of the GO-PGMA particles with a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) elastomeric matrix was proven using contact angle measurements. Prepared composites were further investigated through the dielectric spectroscopy to provide information about the polymer chain mobility through the activation energy. Dynamic mechanical properties investigation showed an excellent mechanical response on the dynamic stimulation at a broad temperature range. Thermal conductivity evaluation also confirmed the further photo-actuation capability properties at light stimulation of various intensities and proved that composite material consisting of GO-PGMA particles provide systems with a significantly enhanced capability in comparison with neat GO as well as neat PDMS matrix. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elastomers)

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14 pages, 5263 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microwave Devulcanized Crumb Rubbers in Polypropylene Based Thermoplastic Dynamic Vulcanizates

by Dániel Ábel Simon, István Zoltán Halász, József Karger-Kocsis and Tamás Bárány

Polymers 2018, 10(7), 767; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10070767 - 12 Jul 2018

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6174

Abstract

Because of the chemically crosslinked 3D molecular structure of rubbers, their recycling is a challenging task, especially when cost efficiency is also considered. One of the most straightforward procedures is the grinding of discarded rubber products with subsequent devulcanization. The devulcanized rubber can be used as a feedstock for fresh rubber compounds or can be blended with uncured virgin rubber and thermoplastic polymers to form thermoplastic dynamic vulcanizates (TDVs). TDVs combine the beneficial (re)processability of thermoplastics and the elastic properties of rubbers. Our current work focuses on the development of polypropylene (PP)-based TDVs with the use of a tire model rubber (MR) composed of natural rubber (NR) and styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) in a ratio of 70/30. The research target was the partial substitution of the above fresh MR by microwave devulcanized crumb rubber (dCR). TDVs were produced by continuous extrusion, and the effects of composition (PP/MR/dCR = 40/60/0…50/35/15) and processing parameters (different screw configurations, temperature profiles, the feeding method of PP) were investigated. Results showed that the fresh rubber compound can be replaced up to 10 wt % without compromising the mechanical properties of the resulting TDV. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elastomers)

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16 pages, 7376 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing the Silanization Reaction of the Silica-Silane System by Different Amines in Model and Practical Silica-Filled Natural Rubber Compounds

by C. Hayichelaeh, L.A.E.M. Reuvekamp, W.K. Dierkes, A. Blume, J.W.M. Noordermeer and K. Sahakaro

Polymers 2018, 10(6), 584; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10060584 - 27 May 2018

Cited by 41 | Viewed by 9927

Abstract

Diphenyl guanidine (DPG) is an essential ingredient in silica-reinforced rubber compounds for low rolling resistance tires, as it not only acts as a secondary accelerator, but also as a catalyst for the silanization reaction. However, because of concern over the toxicity of DPG that liberates aniline during high-temperature processing, safe alternatives are required. The present work studies several amines as potential alternatives for DPG. Different amines (i.e., hexylamine, decylamine, octadecylamine, cyclohexylamine, dicyclohexylamine, and quinuclidine) are investigated in a model system, as well as in a practical rubber compound by taking the ones with DPG and without amine as references. The kinetics of the silanization reaction of the silica/silane mixtures are evaluated using model compounds. The mixtures with amines show up to 3.7 times higher rate constants of the primary silanization reaction compared to the compound without amine. Linear aliphatic amines promote the rate constant of the primary silanization reaction to a greater extent compared to amines with a cyclic structure. The amines with short-alkyl chains that provide better accessibility towards the silica surface, enhance the primary silanization reaction more than the ones with long-alkyl chains. The different amines have no significant influence on the rate constant of the secondary silanization reaction. The amine types that give a higher primary silanization reaction rate constant show a lower flocculation rate in the practical compounds. For the systems with a bit lower primary silanization reaction rate, but higher extent of shielding or physical adsorption that still promotes higher interfacial compatibility between the elastomer and the filler surface, the rubber compounds show a lower Payne effect which would indicate lower filler-filler interaction. However, the flocculation rate constant remained high. Full article

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15 pages, 2644 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of New Transparent Thermoplastic Polyurethane Elastomers Derived from Cycloaliphatic Diisocyanate

by Andrzej Puszka

Polymers 2018, 10(5), 537; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10050537 - 16 May 2018

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 5511

Abstract

New transparent thermoplastic polyurethane elastomers (TPURs) with the hard-segment content of ≈50 mass % were synthesized by one-step melt polyaddition of 1,1′-methanediylbis(4-isocyanatocyclohexane), 2,2′-methylenebis[(4,1-phenylene)-methylenesulfanediyl]diethanol (diol E), 3-hydroxy-2-(hydroxymethyl)-2-methylpropanoic acid (DMPA), a poly(oxytetramethylene) diol of

{\bar{M}}_{n}

= 1000 g/mol (PTMO), or a poly(hexametylene carbonate) [...] Read more.

{\bar{M}}_{n}

= 1000 g/mol (PTMO), or a poly(hexametylene carbonate) diol of

{\bar{M}}_{n}

= 860 g/mol (PHCD). Herein, I prepared TPURs in which 20, 40, and 60 mol % of diol E was replaced with DMPA, an ionic chain extender. The structure of polymers was examined by ATR-FTIR. Their thermal and mechanical behaviors were determined by means of thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA), tensile tests, and Shore A/D hardness. Their optical properties are described. Generally, the addition of carboxyl groups to the polymer resulted in decreases in their thermal stability, transparency, and refractive indexes. Furthermore, the use of different soft segments revealed significant differences in both mechanical and thermal properties of the polymers obtained. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elastomers)

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20 pages, 5915 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Kinetics of Ordering and Deformation in Photosensitive Azobenzene LC Networks

by Vladimir Toshchevikov, Tatiana Petrova and Marina Saphiannikova

Polymers 2018, 10(5), 531; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10050531 - 15 May 2018

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3238

Abstract

Azobenzene-containing polymer networks are unique compounds that are able to change their shape in response to light, which makes them prospective materials for photocontrollable nano-templates, sensors, microrobots, artificial muscles, etc. In present work, we study the kinetics of light-induced ordering and deformation in two-component polymer networks containing optically inert liquid crystalline (LC) mesogens and azobenzene chromophores. By this, we generalize our previous theory [J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2017, 8, 1094–1098] devoted to the kinetics of photoizomerization in one-component azo-polymers without mesogenic inclusions. The kinetic equations of photoisomerization are used, taking into account the angular selectivity of the photoisomerization with respect to the polarization direction of the light E. After multiple trans-cis-trans photoisomerization cycles, the azobenzenes are reoriented preferably perpendicular to the vector E. This changes the ordering of the mesogens due to the orientational LC interactions between the components. The light-induced reordering is accompanied by network deformation. Time evolution of ordering and deformation is found as a function of the intensity of light and structural parameters of the LC azo-networks, which define the viscosity, the strength of the LC interactions between the components, the volume fraction of the azobenzene moieties, and the angular distribution of azobenzenes in polymer chains. Established structure-property relationships are in agreement with a number of experimental data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elastomers)

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15 pages, 25391 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phase Morphology of NR/SBR Blends: Effect of Curing Temperature and Curing Time

by Darja Klat, Hossein Ali Karimi-Varzaneh and Jorge Lacayo-Pineda

Polymers 2018, 10(5), 510; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10050510 - 08 May 2018

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 8527

Abstract

The morphology of natural rubber/styrene–butadiene rubber blends (NR/SBR) was characterized by atomic force microscopy (AFM), with regard to curing temperature and curing time. The changes in blend morphology were directly visualized by AFM which confirmed the results of indirect experiments like differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Comparing the phase morphologies at different curing temperatures indicated that the domain size of SBR increases with temperature at lower curing temperatures, but domain growing stops at the latest scorch time. This effect is explained by longer scorch times at low curing temperatures which facilitate phase separation, while the short scorch times at higher temperatures meant that the coalescence of SBR phases was hindered by cross-linking between polymer chains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elastomers)

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18 pages, 3400 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New Three-Dimensional Poly(decanediol-co-tricarballylate) Elastomeric Fibrous Mesh Fabricated by Photoreactive Electrospinning for Cardiac Tissue Engineering Applications

by Hesham M. Ismail, Somayeh Zamani, Mohamed A. Elrayess, Wael Kafienah and Husam M. Younes

Polymers 2018, 10(4), 455; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10040455 - 19 Apr 2018

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4905

Abstract

Reactive electrospinning is capable of efficiently producing in situ crosslinked scaffolds resembling the natural extracellular matrix with tunable characteristics. In this study, we aimed to synthesize, characterize, and investigate the in vitro cytocompatibility of electrospun fibers of acrylated poly(1,10-decanediol-co-tricarballylate) copolymer prepared utilizing the photoreactive electrospinning process with ultraviolet radiation for crosslinking, to be used for cardiac tissue engineering applications. Chemical, thermal, and morphological characterization confirmed the successful synthesis of the polymer used for production of the electrospun fibrous scaffolds with more than 70% porosity. Mechanical testing confirmed the elastomeric nature of the fibers required to withstand cardiac contraction and relaxation. The cell viability assay showed no significant cytotoxicity of the fibers on cultured cardiomyoblasts and the cell-scaffolds interaction study showed a significant increase in cell attachment and growth on the electrospun fibers compared to the reference. This data suggests that the newly synthesized fibrous scaffold constitutes a promising candidate for cardiac tissue engineering applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elastomers)

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15 pages, 4785 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modelling Filler Dispersion in Elastomers: Relating Filler Morphology to Interface Free Energies via SAXS and TEM Simulation Studies

by Norman Gundlach and Reinhard Hentschke

Polymers 2018, 10(4), 446; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10040446 - 16 Apr 2018

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 7980

Abstract

The properties of rubber are strongly influenced by the distribution of filler within the polymer matrix. Here, we introduce a Monte Carlo-based morphology generator. The basic elements of our model are cubic cells, which, in the current version, can be either silica filler particles or rubber volume elements in adjustable proportion. The model allows the assignment of surface free energies to the particles according to whether a surface represents, for instance, ‘naked’ silica or silanised silica. The amount of silanisation is variable. We use a nearest-neighbour site-exchange Monte Carlo algorithm to generate filler morphologies, mimicking flocculation. Transmission electron micrographs (TEM) as well as small angle scattering (SAS) intensities can be calculated along the Monte Carlo trajectory. In this work, we demonstrate the application of our morphology generator in terms of selected examples. We illustrate its potential as a tool for screening studies, relating interface tensions between the components to filler network structure as characterised by TEM and SAS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elastomers)

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8 pages, 3032 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Magnetically Tunable Vibration Transmissibility for Polyurethane Magnetic Elastomers

by Hiroyuki Endo, Shunsuke Kato, Mayuko Watanebe, Takehito Kikuchi, Mika Kawai and Tetsu Mitsumata

Polymers 2018, 10(1), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10010104 - 22 Jan 2018

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6033

Abstract

The effect of a weak magnetic field on vibration transmissibility was investigated for magnetic elastomers with various volume fractions of magnetic particles. Polyurethane elastomers without magnetic particles exhibited a natural frequency at 53 Hz and were insensitive to a magnetic field of 60 mT. The natural frequency for magnetic elastomers with a volume fraction of 0.23 was 115 Hz at 0 mT, and increased to 134 Hz at 60 mT. The vibration transmissibility was independent of the magnetic field. A linear relation between the natural frequency and (G/m)^1/2 was observed (G: storage modulus, m: mass), indicating that the observed vibration is basically described by a simple harmonic oscillation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elastomers)

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10 pages, 2493 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temperature Scanning Stress Relaxation of an Autonomous Self-Healing Elastomer Containing Non-Covalent Reversible Network Junctions

by Amit Das, Aladdin Sallat, Frank Böhme, Essi Sarlin, Jyrki Vuorinen, Norbert Vennemann, Gert Heinrich and Klaus Werner Stöckelhuber

Polymers 2018, 10(1), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10010094 - 19 Jan 2018

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 7515

Abstract

In this work, we report about the mechanical relaxation characteristics of an intrinsically self-healable imidazole modified commercial rubber. This kind of self-healing rubber was prepared by melt mixing of 1-butyl imidazole with bromo-butyl rubber (bromine modified isoprene-isobutylene copolymer, BIIR). By this melt mixing process, the reactive allylic bromine of bromo-butyl rubber was converted into imidazole bromide salt. The resulting development of an ionic character to the polymer backbone leads to an ionic association of the groups which ultimately results to the formation of a network structure of the rubber chains. The modified BIIR thus behaves like a robust crosslinked rubber and shows unusual self-healing properties. The non-covalent reversible network has been studied in detail with respect to stress relaxation experiments, scanning electron microscopic and X-ray scattering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elastomers)

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14 pages, 27800 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Properties Changes of Irradiated Thermoplastic Elastomer

by David Manas, Ales Mizera, Miroslav Manas, Martin Ovsik, Lenka Hylova, Stanislav Sehnalek and Pavel Stoklasek

Polymers 2018, 10(1), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10010087 - 17 Jan 2018

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5699

Abstract

Some polymers need a cross-linking agent for the controlled cross-linking process of polymers with a tendency to degradation during the radiation cross-linking process. While, on the other hand, other polymers do not need a cross-linking agent—predominantly there are cross-linking polymers. The Thermo-Plastic Elastomer (TPE) that was used belongs to this group of predominantly cross-linking polymers; however, this agent is added because of faster reaction times and smaller irradiation doses. Microindentation–tensile and tensile impact tests were carried out on a thermoplastic sample—with, and without, a cross-linking agent. Small changes were measured between these materials at low radiation doses, (up to 66 kGy); nevertheless, at higher doses, the influence of the cross-linking agent on the mechanical properties is significant. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elastomers)

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3422 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Abrasive Wear Resistance of the Segmented Linear Polyurethane Elastomers Based on a Variety of Polyols as Soft Segments

by Konrad Kwiatkowski and Małgorzata Nachman

Polymers 2017, 9(12), 705; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9120705 - 12 Dec 2017

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 7655

Abstract

The presented results make an original contribution to the development of knowledge on the prediction and/or modeling of the abrasive wear properties of polyurethanes. A series of segmented linear polyurethane elastomers (PUR)—In which the hard segments consist of 4,4′-methylene bis(phenylisocyanate) and 1,4-butanodiol, whilst polyether, polycarbonate, or polyester polyols constitute the soft segments—Were synthesized and characterized. The hardness and wear performance as functions of the variable chemical composition of polyurethane elastomers were evaluated in order to define the relationship between studied factors. The microstructure was characterized in detail, including analysis of the hydrogen bonding by Fourier transformed infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and the phase structure by X-ray scattering (WAXS) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) methods. The presented studies provide the key features of the polymer composition affecting the abrasive resistance as well as attempts to explain the origin of the differences in the polyurethane elastomers’ performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elastomers)

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14478 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Investigation of the Magnetorheological Behavior of PDMS Elastomer Reinforced with Iron Micro/Nanoparticles

by Luis Manuel Palacios-Pineda, Imperio Anel Perales-Martinez, Luis M. Lozano-Sanchez, Oscar Martínez-Romero, Jesús Puente-Córdova, Emmanuel Segura-Cárdenas and Alex Elías-Zúñiga

Polymers 2017, 9(12), 696; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9120696 - 10 Dec 2017

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 5931

Abstract

The aim of this article focuses on identifying how the addition of iron micro- and nanoparticles influences the physical properties of magnetorheological composite materials developed with a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) matrix with different contents of silicone oil used as additive. A number of characterization techniques have been performed in order to fully characterize the samples, such as cyclic and uniaxial extension, rheology, swelling, Vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR), X-ray photoelectronic spectroscopy (XPS) and Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The comparison between two matrices with different shore hardnesses and their mechanical and chemical properties are elucidated by swelling and tensile tests. In fact, swelling tests showed that higher crosslink density leads to increasing elongation at break and tensile strength values for the composite materials. The best mechanical performance in the magnetorheological material was observed for those samples manufactured using a higher silicone oil content in a hard polymeric matrix. Furthermore, it has been found that the magnetic properties are enhanced when nanoparticles are used as fillers instead of microparticles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elastomers)

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