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A special issue of Remote Sensing (ISSN 2072-4292).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (26 June 2019) | Viewed by 56472

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Dr. George P. Petropoulos

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Department of Geography, Harokopio University of Athens, 176 71 Moschato, Greece
Interests: earth observation; modeling; land surface interactions; soil moisture; evapotrasnpiration; land use/cover mapping; change detection; natural hazards; floods; wildfires; sensitivity analysis; soil vegetation atmosphere transfer modeling; operational products benchmarking
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Dr. Prashant K Srivastava

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Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Interests: hyperspectral remote sensing; soft computing
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Global Positioning Systems (GPS) have become an important tool in a wide range of studies using Remote Sensing and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) techniques. GPS signals such as those used in Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) can be used to perform remote sensing of the Earth’s surface after they have been reflected from the Earth’s surface. GPS/GNSS signals can be used to provide useful information about the Earth’s surface characteristics and land surface composition. GPS equipment and services for commercial even purposes continues to grow fast, resulting to generating new expectations and demands.

The aim of the present Special Issue is to foster advances in GPS/GNSS technology for a range of practical applications and research investigations. We particularly encourage both theoretical and applied research contributions, furthering knowledge on the use of this technology in all disciplines of geosciences. Such contributions can be focused on various aspects, including, but not limited to, satellites, receivers, positioning algorithms, important contemporary applications, software tool development for data collection and processing, as well as their applications.

Dr. George Petropoulos
Prof. Prashant Srivastava
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Remote Sensing is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

GPS technology
GNSS technology
GPS/GNSS reference station infrastructure
Geodesy
Applications
Navigation
Precise positioning
Precision agriculture
Land surface properties
UAVs
Software tools
COSMIC radiation
Environmental monitoring
Geolocation services

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 6419 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geodetic Constraints on the Crustal Deformation along the Kunlun Fault and Its Tectonic Implications

by Yanchuan Li, Xinjian Shan and Chunyan Qu

Remote Sens. 2019, 11(15), 1775; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11151775 - 28 Jul 2019

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3913

Abstract

This study focuses on the crustal deformation and interseismic fault coupling along the strike-slip Kunlun fault, northern Tibet, whose western segment ruptured in the 2001 Mw 7.8 Kokoxili earthquake. We first integrated published Global Positioning System (GPS) velocity solutions and calculated strain rate fields covering the Kunlun fault. Our results show abnormally high post-earthquake strain rate values across the ruptures; furthermore, these exceed those in pre-earthquake data. Together with two tracks of interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) observations (2003–2010) and position time-series data from two continuous GPS sites, we show that the postseismic deformation of the Kokoxili earthquake may continue up to 2014; and that the postseismic transients of the earthquake affect the 2001–2014 GPS velocity solutions. We then processed the GPS data observed in 2014–2017 and obtained a dense interseismic velocity field for the northern Tibet. Using a fault dislocation model in a Bayesian framework, we estimated the slip rates and fault coupling on the Kunlun fault in 1991–2001 and 2014–2017. Results show an increase of slip rates and eastward migration of high fault coupling on the Kunlun fault after 2001. We propose the temporal variations are a result of the eastward accelerating movement, as a whole, of the Bayanhar block, whose boundaries were decoupled by several large earthquakes since 1997. Moreover, our results show the accumulated elastic strains along the Alake Lake-Tuosuo Lake segments could be balanced by an Mw 7.4–7.7 earthquake. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue GPS/GNSS Contemporary Applications)

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17 pages, 3460 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Galileo Single Point Positioning Assessment Including FOC Satellites in Eccentric Orbits

by Umberto Robustelli and Giovanni Pugliano

Remote Sens. 2019, 11(13), 1555; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11131555 - 30 Jun 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3302

Abstract

On August 2016, the Milena (E14) and Doresa (E18) satellites started to broadcast ephemeris in navigation message for testing purposes. As the Galileo constellation is not yet complete. It is very important to have two more satellites available since the position accuracy increases as the number of visible satellites increases. In this article, we examine how the inclusion of the Milena (E14) and Doresa (E18) satellites impacts the position accuracy. The analysis was carried out on 20 days of 1-Hz observations collected by a receiver placed in YEL2IGS (International GNSS service) station. Two different scenarios are considered: the first excludes the measurements coming from the analyzed satellites, while the second one includes them. The analysis was conducted by using a suitable software tool developed in the MATLAB® environment able to compute satellites position from both the broadcast and precise ephemerides, to assess DOP (Dilution Of Precision) parameters and to compute single-point positioning for all Galileo frequencies. The analyses are conducted by using both broadcast and precise ephemeris. The inclusion of the two satellites improves the system availability, varying it from 94.1–97.94%, the DOP parameters, and the percentages of achieved positioning solutions by about 5% regardless of the frequency used. Nevertheless, in the positioning domain, when the broadcast ephemerides are used, the inclusion of the satellites worsens both the horizontal and vertical accuracy of the solution. The deterioration of the horizontal accuracy goes from 0.17 m with E5a frequency measurements to 0.74 m with E1 measurements. The reduction of vertical accuracy goes from 0.68 m for E5a to 1.2 m for E1 measurements. However, if precise ephemerides are used, both the horizontal and the vertical accuracy remain stable, actually for the E5b frequency, the DRMS (Distance Root Mean Squared) improves by almost 0.5 m. The results achieved show that the real drawback to overcome is related to the quality of broadcast ephemeris as, when precise ephemeris are used, the number of solutions achieved is increased by about 5% with an accuracy similar to that obtained when the satellites are excluded. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue GPS/GNSS Contemporary Applications)

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14 pages, 4009 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sensitivity of the Gravity Model and Orbital Frame for On-board Real-Time Orbit Determination: Operational Results of GPS-12 GPS Receiver

by Eunhyouek Kim, Seungyeop Han and Amer Mohammad Al Sayegh

Remote Sens. 2019, 11(13), 1542; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11131542 - 28 Jun 2019

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3115

Abstract

This paper describes the sensitivity of both the orbital frame domain selection and the gravity model on the performance of on-board real-time orbit determination. Practical error sources, which affect the navigation solution of spaceborne global positioning system (GPS) receivers, are analyzed first. Then, a reasonable orbital frame (radial, in-track, cross-track (RIC)) is proposed to clearly represent the characteristics of the error in order to improve the performance of the orbit determination (OD) logic. In addition, the sensitivity of the gravity model affecting the orbit determination logic is analyzed by comparison with the precise orbit ephemeris (POE) of the Challenging Minisatellite Payload (CHAMP) satellite, and it is confirmed that the Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment (GRACE) Gravity Model 03 (GGM03) outperforms the Earth Gravity Model 1996 (EGM96). The effects of both proposed orbit frames and the gravity model on the orbit determination logic are verified using a GPS simulator and observation data from the CHAMP satellite. Moreover, the practical performance of on-board real-time orbit determination logic is verified by updating the software of the spaceborne GPS receiver, GPS-12, on DubaiSat-2 operating at low Earth orbit (LEO). The results show that the position accuracy of on-board real-time orbit determination logic in GPS-12 is improved by 59%, from 12.6 m (1 σ) to 5.1 m (1 σ), after applying the proposed methods. The velocity accuracy is also improved by 57%, from 13.7 mm/s (1 σ) to 5.9 mm/s (1 σ). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue GPS/GNSS Contemporary Applications)

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19 pages, 3970 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Establishment of a Real-Time Local Tropospheric Fusion Model

by Yibin Yao, Xingyu Xu, Chaoqian Xu, Wenjie Peng and Yangyang Wan

Remote Sens. 2019, 11(11), 1321; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11111321 - 01 Jun 2019

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 3448

Abstract

The tropospheric delay is one major error source affecting the precise positioning provided by the global navigation satellite system (GNSS). This error occurs because the GNSS signals are refracted while travelling through the troposphere layer. Nowadays, various types of model can produce the tropospheric delay. Among them, the globally distributed GNSS permanent stations can resolve the tropospheric delay with the highest accuracy and the best continuity. Meteorological models, such as the Saastamoinen model, provide formulae to calculate temperature, pressure, water vapor pressure and subsequently the tropospheric delay. Some grid-based empirical tropospheric delay models directly provide tropospheric parameters at a global scale and in real time without any auxiliary information. However, the spatial resolution of the GNSS tropospheric delay is not sufficient, and the accuracy of the meteorological and empirical models is relatively poor. With the rapid development of satellite navigation systems around the globe, the demand for real-time high-precision GNSS positioning services has been growing dramatically, requiring real-time and high-accuracy troposphere models as a critical prerequisite. Therefore, this paper proposes a multi-source real-time local tropospheric delay model that uses polynomial fitting of ground-based GNSS observations, meteorological data, and empirical GPT2w models. The results show that the accuracy in the zenith tropospheric delay (ZTD) of the proposed tropospheric delay model has been verified with a RMS (root mean square) of 1.48 cm in active troposphere conditions, and 1.45 cm in stable troposphere conditions, which is significantly better than the conventional tropospheric GPT2w and Saastamoinen models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue GPS/GNSS Contemporary Applications)

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14 pages, 3536 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Neural Network Approach to Forecast Hourly Intense Rainfall Using GNSS Precipitable Water Vapor and Meteorological Sensors

by Pedro Benevides, Joao Catalao and Giovanni Nico

Remote Sens. 2019, 11(8), 966; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11080966 - 23 Apr 2019

Cited by 59 | Viewed by 5217

Abstract

This work presents a methodology for the short-term forecast of intense rainfall based on a neural network and the integration of Global Navigation and Positioning System (GNSS) and meteorological data. Precipitable water vapor (PWV) derived from GNSS is combined with surface pressure, surface temperature and relative humidity obtained continuously from a ground-based meteorological station. Five years of GNSS data from one station in Lisbon, Portugal, are processed. Data for precipitation forecast are also collected from the meteorological station. Spaceborne Spinning Enhanced Visible and Infrared Imager (SEVIRI) data of cloud top measurements are also gathered, providing collocated information on an hourly basis. In previous studies it was found that the time-varying PWV is correlated with rainfall and can be used to detected heavy rain. However, a significant number of false positives were found, meaning that the evolution of PWV does not contain enough information to infer future rain. In this work, a nonlinear autoregressive exogenous neural network model (NARX) is used to process the GNSS and meteorological data to forecast the hourly precipitation. The proposed methodology improves the detection of intense rainfall events and reduces the number of false positives, with a good classification score varying from 63% up to 72% and a false positive rate of 36% down to 21%, for the tested years in the dataset. A score of 64% for intense rain events classification with 22% false positive rate is obtained for the most recent years. The method also achieves an almost 100% hit rate for the rain vs no rain detection, with close to no false alarms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue GPS/GNSS Contemporary Applications)

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27 pages, 13155 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prospects for Imaging Terrestrial Water Storage in South America Using Daily GPS Observations

by Vagner G. Ferreira, Christopher E. Ndehedehe, Henry C. Montecino, Bin Yong, Peng Yuan, Ahmed Abdalla and Abubakar S. Mohammed

Remote Sens. 2019, 11(6), 679; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11060679 - 21 Mar 2019

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 5308

Abstract

Few studies have used crustal displacements sensed by the Global Positioning System (GPS) to assess the terrestrial water storage (TWS), which causes loadings. Furthermore, no study has investigated the feasibility of using GPS to image TWS over South America (SA), which contains the world’s driest (Atacama Desert) and wettest (Amazon Basin) regions. This work presents a resolution analysis of an inversion of GPS data over SA. Firstly, synthetic experiments were used to verify the spatial resolutions of GPS-imaged TWS and examine the resolving accuracies of the inversion based on checkerboard tests and closed-loop simulations using “TWS” from the Noah-driven Global Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS-Noah). Secondly, observed radial displacements were used to image daily TWS. The inverted results of TWS at a resolution of 300 km present negligible errors, as shown by synthetic experiments involving 397 GPS stations across SA. However, as a result of missing daily observations, the actual daily number of available stations varied from 60–353, and only 6% of the daily GPS-imaged TWS agree with GLDAS-Noah TWS, which indicates a root-mean-squared error (RMSE) of less than 100 kg/m

^{2}

. Nevertheless, the inversion shows agreement that is better than 0.50 and 61.58 kg/m

^{2}

in terms of the correlation coefficient (Pearson) and RMSE, respectively, albeit at each GPS site. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue GPS/GNSS Contemporary Applications)

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21 pages, 9369 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fusion of GNSS and Satellite Radar Interferometry: Determination of 3D Fine-Scale Map of Present-Day Surface Displacements in Italy as Expressions of Geodynamic Processes

by Gregorio Farolfi, Aldo Piombino and Filippo Catani

Remote Sens. 2019, 11(4), 394; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11040394 - 15 Feb 2019

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 7726

Abstract

We present a detailed map of ground movement in Italy derived from the combination of the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) and Satellite Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) interferometry. These techniques are two of the most used space geodetic techniques to study Earth surface deformation. The above techniques provide displacements with respect to different components of the ground point position; GNSSs use the geocentric International Terrestrial Reference System 1989 (ITRS89), whereas the satellite SAR interferometry components are identified by the Lines of Sight (LOSs) between a satellite and ground points. Moreover, SAR interferometry is a differential technique, and for that reason, displacements have no absolute reference datum. We performed datum alignment of InSAR products using precise velocity fields derived from GNSS permanent stations. The result is a coherent ground velocity field with detailed boundaries of velocity patterns that provide new information about the complex geodynamics involved on the Italian peninsula and about local movements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue GPS/GNSS Contemporary Applications)

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16 pages, 2001 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving the Performance of Galileo Uncombined Precise Point Positioning Ambiguity Resolution Using Triple-Frequency Observations

by Gen Liu, Xiaohong Zhang and Pan Li

Remote Sens. 2019, 11(3), 341; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11030341 - 08 Feb 2019

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3623

Abstract

Compared with the traditional ionospheric-free linear combination precise point positioning (PPP) model, the un-differenced and uncombined (UDUC) PPP model using original observations can keep all the information of the observations and be easily extended to any number of frequencies. However, the current studies about the multi-frequency UDUC-PPP ambiguity resolution (AR) were mainly based on the triple-frequency BeiDou navigation satellite system (BDS) observations or simulated data. Limited by many factors, for example the accuracy of BDS precise orbit and clock products, the advantages of triple-frequency signals to UDUC-PPP AR were not fully exploited. As Galileo constellations have been upgraded by increasing the number of 19 useable satellites, it makes using Galileo satellites to further study the triple-frequency UDUC-PPP ambiguity resolution (AR) possible. In this contribution, we proposed the method of multi-frequency step-by-step ambiguity resolution based on the UDUC-PPP model and gave the reason why the performance of PPP AR can be improved using triple-frequency observations. We used triple-frequency Galileo observations on day of year (DOY) 201, 2018 provided by 166 Multi-GNSS Experiment (MGEX) stations to estimate original uncalibrated phase delays (UPD) on each frequency and to conduct both dual- and triple-frequency UDUC-PPP AR. The performance of UDUC-PPP AR based on post-processing mode was assessed in terms of the time-to-first-fix (TTFF) as well as positioning accuracy with 2-h observations. It was found that triple-frequency observations were helpful to reduce TTFF and improve the positioning accuracy. The current statistic results showed that triple-frequency PPP-AR reduced the averaged TTFF by 19.6% and also improved the positioning accuracy by 40.9%, 31.2% and 23.6% in the east, north and up directions respectively, compared with dual-frequency PPP-AR. With an increasing number of Galileo satellites, it is expected that the robustness and accuracy of the triple-frequency UCUD-PPP AR can be improved further. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue GPS/GNSS Contemporary Applications)

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16 pages, 4548 KiB

Open AccessArticle

GNSS RTK Positioning Augmented with Large LEO Constellation

by Xingxing Li, Hongbo Lv, Fujian Ma, Xin Li, Jinghui Liu and Zihao Jiang

Remote Sens. 2019, 11(3), 228; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11030228 - 22 Jan 2019

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4878

Abstract

It is widely known that in real-time kinematic (RTK) solution, the convergence and ambiguity-fixed speeds are critical requirements to achieve centimeter-level positioning, especially in medium-to-long baselines. Recently, the current status of the global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) can be improved by employing low earth orbit (LEO) satellites. In this study, an initial assessment is applied for LEO constellations augmented GNSS RTK positioning, where four designed LEO constellations with different satellite numbers, as well as the nominal GPS constellation, are simulated and adopted for analysis. In terms of aforementioned constellations solutions, the statistical results of a 68.7-km baseline show that when introducing 60, 96, 192, and 288 polar-orbiting LEO constellations, the RTK convergence time can be shortened from 4.94 to 2.73, 1.47, 0.92, and 0.73 min, respectively. In addition, the average time to first fix (TTFF) can be decreased from 7.28 to 3.33, 2.38, 1.22, and 0.87 min, respectively. Meanwhile, further improvements could be satisfied in several elements such as corresponding fixing ratio, number of visible satellites, position dilution of precision (PDOP) and baseline solution precision. Furthermore, the performance of the combined GPS/LEO RTK is evaluated over various-length baselines, based on convergence time and TTFF. The research findings show that the medium-to-long baseline schemes confirm that LEO satellites do helpfully obtain faster convergence and fixing, especially in the case of long baselines, using large LEO constellations, subsequently, the average TTFF for long baselines has a substantial shortened about 90%, in other words from 12 to 2 min approximately by combining with the larger LEO constellation of 192 or 288 satellites. It is interesting to denote that similar improvements can be observed from the convergence time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue GPS/GNSS Contemporary Applications)

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18 pages, 4283 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Convolutional Neural Network Based Multipath Detection Method for Static and Kinematic GPS High Precision Positioning

by Yiming Quan, Lawrence Lau, Gethin Wyn Roberts, Xiaolin Meng and Chao Zhang

Remote Sens. 2018, 10(12), 2052; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10122052 - 17 Dec 2018

Cited by 60 | Viewed by 7342

Abstract

Global Positioning System (GPS) has been used in many aerial and terrestrial high precision positioning applications. Multipath affects positioning and navigation performance. This paper proposes a convolutional neural network based carrier-phase multipath detection method. The method is based on the fact that the features of multipath characteristics in multipath contaminated data can be learned and identified by a convolutional neural network. The proposed method is validated with simulated and real GPS data and compared with existing multipath mitigation methods in position domain. The results show the proposed method can detect about 80% multipath errors (i.e., recall) in both simulated and real data. The impact of the proposed method on positioning accuracy improvement is demonstrated with two datasets, 18–30% improvement is obtained by down-weighting the detected multipath measurements. The focus of this paper is on the development and test of the proposed convolutional neural network based multipath detection algorithm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue GPS/GNSS Contemporary Applications)

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14 pages, 1976 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Introduction of the Double-Differenced Ambiguity Resolution into Precise Point Positioning

by Haojun Li, Jingxin Xiao, Shoujian Zhang, Jin Zhou and Jiexian Wang

Remote Sens. 2018, 10(11), 1779; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10111779 - 09 Nov 2018

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3190

Abstract

According to the advantages of the precise point positioning (PPP) and the double-differenced (DD) model based algorithm, a new method for the integration of DD integer ambiguity resolution into PPP is presented. This method uses the undifferenced ambiguity estimated with PPP computation and the DD ambiguity generated from the DD model based algorithm to realize the PPP ambiguity fixing. In the presented method, the selection of the undifferenced ambiguity bases on the ratio test of the DD ambiguity and the ratio values based weight is used in PPP processing. This ensures the quality of the used undifferenced ambiguity. To validate the presented method, two experiments are implemented using the ten days (11 to 20 August 2014) data from local and regional reference stations and the moved two receivers. The results of the presented strategy show that improvements are achieved in all three coordinate components. The 1-h, 2-h, and 4-h PPP results indicate that the mean relative improvements were about 19%, 18%, and 15% for north, east, and up components. These results also show that prominent improvements of 29%, 31%, and 25% for north, east, and up components were obtained when the ratio values based weight was used. The application of the presented method in the displacement monitoring was implemented with the experiment and it showed that the PPP estimation computed with the presented strategy benefits local or regional displacement monitoring and improves the detecting ability for displacement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue GPS/GNSS Contemporary Applications)

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12 pages, 11857 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Establishment and Evaluation of a New Meteorological Observation-Based Grid Model for Estimating Zenith Wet Delay in Ground-Based Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)

by Yibin Yao, Zhangyu Sun and Chaoqian Xu

Remote Sens. 2018, 10(11), 1718; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10111718 - 31 Oct 2018

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3785

Abstract

With the availability to high-accuracy a priori zenith wet delay (ZWD) data, the positioning efficiency of the precise point positioning (PPP) processing can be effectively improved, including accelerating the convergence time and improving the positioning precision, in ground-based Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) technology. Considering the limitations existing in the state-of-the-art ZWD models, this paper established and evaluated a new in-situ meteorological observation-based grid model for estimating ZWD named GridZWD using the radiosonde data and the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECWMF) data. The results show that ZWD has a strong correlation with the meteorological parameter water vapor pressure in continental and high-latitude regions. The root of mean square error (RMS) of 24.6 mm and 36.0 mm are achievable by the GridZWD model when evaluated with the ECWMF data and the radiosonde data, respectively. An accuracy improvement of approximately 10%~30% compared with the state-of-the-art models (e.g., the Saastamoinen, Hopfield and GPT2w models) can be found for the new built model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue GPS/GNSS Contemporary Applications)

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