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Smart Sensors: Applications and Advances in Human Motion Analysis

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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Physical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 October 2021) | Viewed by 42302

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Cristina P. Santos

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Guest Editor

Center for MicroElectroMechanical Systems (CMEMS), University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
Interests: human motion; human locomotion; human–robot interactions and collaboration; medical devices; neuro-rehabilitation of patients suffering from motor problems by means of bio-inspired robotics and neuroscience technologies
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Joana Figueiredo

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Guest Editor

Postdoctoral researcher, Center for MicroElectroMechanical Systems (CMEMS), University of Minho, Minho, Portugal
Interests: gait rehabilitation robotics; wearable motion sensors; gait analysis; human motion recognition

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

New directions in human motion cover motion recognition and prediction, and human-robot interaction perception using sensor-based technologies driven by recent technological advances (wearable sensors, advanced sensors, artificial intelligence and machine learning, electronic and smart sensing textiles, and so on). Advanced applications in both scenarios rely on the combination of smart sensors with the algorithmic advances in artificial intelligence.

The adequate provision of human motion requires the consideration of various aspects, as follows. The use of unobtrusive, low-cost wearable sensors that are capable of tracking relevant motion in free-living conditions; machine learning-based strategies for reasoning sensor data; intuitive and collaborative sensor-based technologies for timely assisting and interacting with users in various environments. The accurate decision making of human motion may bring new achievements in diverse robotic applications. The inclusion of motion prediction strategies in robotic assistive devices is necessary to provide patients with personalized motor assistance and to prevent risk situations. Moreover, the collaborative robots, used in Industry 4.0 programs and social robots, will benefit if the robot is being continuously kept informed of the human motor performance and safety.

This Special Issue covers new strategies to recognize and predict the human motion or the human-robot interaction, both in the clinical and in the industry fields, thanks to the application of smart sensors or the innovative use of the standard wearable sensors. Biofeedback strategies-related sensors to augment human collaboration with robotic systems are also encouraged.

Contributions may include, but are not limited to:

Smart sensors for human motion analysis;
Sensors for decision making and smart-based applications;
Wearable sensor-based strategies for motion intention recognition;
Machine learning algorithms for human motion recognition and prediction;
Machine learning -based sensor measurements for human motion estimation;
Sensors applications on collaborative and assistive robots;
Advanced strategies for improving human-robot interaction;
Sensing for physical human-robot interaction;
Applications of sensors for robotics

You may choose our Joint Special Issue in Machines.

Dr. Cristina P. Santos
Dr. Joana Figueiredo
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

11 pages, 1928 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Stack LSTM-Based User Identification Using Smart Shoes with Accelerometer Data

by Do-Yun Kim, Seung-Hyeon Lee and Gu-Min Jeong

Sensors 2021, 21(23), 8129; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21238129 - 5 Dec 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1952

Abstract

In this study, we propose a long short-term memory (LSTM)-based user identification method using accelerometer data from smart shoes. In general, for the user identification with human walking data, we require a pre-processing stage in order to divide human walking data into individual steps. Next, user identification can be made with divided step data. In these approaches, when there exist partial data that cannot complete a single step, it is difficult to apply those data to the classification. Considering these facts, in this study, we present a stack LSTM-based user identification method for smart-shoes data. Rather than using a complicated analysis method, we designed an LSTM network for user identification with accelerometer data of smart shoes. In order to learn partial data, the LSTM network was trained using walking data with random sizes and random locations. Then, the identification can be made without any additional analysis such as step division. In the experiments, user walking data with 10 m were used. The experimental results show that the average recognition rate was about 93.41%, 97.19%, and 98.26% by using walking data of 2.6, 3.9, and 5.2 s, respectively. With the experimental results, we show that the proposed method can classify users effectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors: Applications and Advances in Human Motion Analysis)

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28 pages, 5454 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wearable Inertial Measurement Unit Sensing System for Musculoskeletal Disorders Prevention in Construction

by Junqi Zhao, Esther Obonyo and Sven G. Bilén

Sensors 2021, 21(4), 1324; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21041324 - 13 Feb 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4016

Abstract

Construction workers executing manual-intensive tasks are susceptible to musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) due to overexposure to awkward postures. Automated posture recognition and assessment based on wearable sensor output can help reduce MSDs risks through early risk-factor detection. However, extant studies mainly focus on optimizing recognition models. There is a lack of studies exploring the design of a wearable sensing system that assesses the MSDs risks based on detected postures and then provides feedback for injury prevention. This study aims at investigating the design of an effective wearable MSDs prevention system. This study first proposes the design of a wearable inertial measurement unit (IMU) sensing system, then develops the prototype for end-user evaluation. Construction workers and managers evaluated a proposed system by interacting with wearable sensors and user interfaces (UIs), followed by an evaluation survey. The results suggest that wearable sensing is a promising approach for collecting motion data with low discomfort; posture-based MSDs risk assessment has a high potential in improving workers’ safety awareness; and mobile- and cloud-based UIs can deliver the risk assessment information to end-users with ease. This research contributes to the design, development, and validation of wearable sensing-based injury prevention systems, which may be adapted to other labor-intensive occupations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors: Applications and Advances in Human Motion Analysis)

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19 pages, 9027 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Optical and Radar Based Motion Capturing Technologies for Characterizing Hand Movement in Rheumatoid Arthritis—A Pilot Study

by Uday Phutane, Anna-Maria Liphardt, Johanna Bräunig, Johann Penner, Michael Klebl, Koray Tascilar, Martin Vossiek, Arnd Kleyer, Georg Schett and Sigrid Leyendecker

Sensors 2021, 21(4), 1208; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21041208 - 9 Feb 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3307

Abstract

In light of the state-of-the-art treatment options for patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), a detailed and early quantification and detection of impaired hand function is desirable to allow personalized treatment regiments and amend currently used subjective patient reported outcome measures. This is the motivation to apply and adapt modern measurement technologies to quantify, assess and analyze human hand movement using a marker-based optoelectronic measurement system (OMS), which has been widely used to measure human motion. We complement these recordings with data from markerless (Doppler radar) sensors and data from both sensor technologies are integrated with clinical outcomes of hand function. The technologies are leveraged to identify hand movement characteristics in RA affected patients in comparison to healthy control subjects, while performing functional tests, such as the Moberg-Picking-Up Test. The results presented discuss the experimental framework and present the limiting factors imposed by the use of marker-based measurements on hand function. The comparison of simple finger motion data, collected by the OMS, to data recorded by a simple continuous wave radar suggests that radar is a promising option for the objective assessment of hand function. Overall, the broad scope of integrating two measurement technologies with traditional clinical tests shows promising potential for developing new pathways in understanding of the role of functional outcomes for the RA pathology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors: Applications and Advances in Human Motion Analysis)

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14 pages, 3078 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantifying Coordination and Variability in the Lower Extremities after Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction

by Sangheon Park and Sukhoon Yoon

Sensors 2021, 21(2), 652; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21020652 - 19 Jan 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2102

Abstract

Patients experience various biomechanical changes following reconstruction for anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury. However, previous studies have focused on lower extremity joints as a single joint rather than simultaneous lower extremity movements. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the movement changes in the lower limb coordination patterns according to movement type following ACL reconstruction. Twenty-one post ACL reconstruction patients (AG) and an equal number of healthy adults (CG) participated in this study. They were asked to perform walking, running, and cutting maneuvers. The continuous relative phase and variability were calculated to examine the coordination pattern. During running and cutting at 30 and 60°, the AG demonstrated a lower in-phase hip–knee coordination pattern in the sagittal plane. The AG demonstrated low hip–knee variability in the sagittal plane during cutting at 60°. The low in-phase coordination pattern can burden the knee by generating unnatural movements following muscle contraction in the opposite direction. Based on the results, it would be useful to identify the problem and provide the fundamental evidence for the optimal timing of return-to-sport after ACL reconstruction (ACLR) rehabilitation, if the coordination variable is measured with various sensors promptly in the sports field to evaluate the coordination of human movement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors: Applications and Advances in Human Motion Analysis)

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20 pages, 4170 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interface Pressure System to Compare the Functional Performance of Prosthetic Sockets during the Gait in People with Trans-Tibial Amputation

by Salvador Ibarra Aguila, Gisel J. Sánchez, Eric E. Sauvain, B. Alemon, Rita Q. Fuentes-Aguilar and Joel C. Huegel

Sensors 2020, 20(24), 7043; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20247043 - 9 Dec 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4337

Abstract

The interface pressure between the residual limb and prosthetic socket has a significant effect on the amputee’s mobility and level of comfort with their prosthesis. This paper presents a socket interface pressure (SIFP) system to compare the interface pressure differences during gait between two different types of prosthetic sockets for a transtibial amputee. The system evaluates the interface pressure in six critical regions of interest (CROI) of the lower limb amputee and identifies the peak pressures during certain moments of the gait cycle. The six sensors were attached to the residual limb in the CROIs before the participant with transtibial amputation donned a prosthetic socket. The interface pressure was monitored and recorded while the participant walked on a treadmill for 10 min at 1.4 m/s. The results show peak pressure differences of almost 0.22 kgf/cm

^{2}

between the sockets. It was observed that the peak pressure occurred at 50% of the stance phase of the gait cycle. This SIFP system may be used by prosthetists, physical therapists, amputation care centers, and researchers, as well as government and private regulators requiring comparison and evaluation of prosthetic components, components under development, and testing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors: Applications and Advances in Human Motion Analysis)

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29 pages, 1027 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Body-Worn IMU Human Skeletal Pose Estimation Using a Factor Graph-Based Optimization Framework

by Timothy McGrath and Leia Stirling

Sensors 2020, 20(23), 6887; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20236887 - 2 Dec 2020

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5600

Abstract

Traditionally, inertial measurement units- (IMU) based human joint angle estimation requires a priori knowledge about sensor alignment or specific calibration motions. Furthermore, magnetometer measurements can become unreliable indoors. Without magnetometers, however, IMUs lack a heading reference, which leads to unobservability issues. This paper proposes a magnetometer-free estimation method, which provides desirable observability qualities under joint kinematics that sufficiently excite the lower body degrees of freedom. The proposed lower body model expands on the current self-calibrating human-IMU estimation literature and demonstrates a novel knee hinge model, the inclusion of segment length anthropometry, segment cross-leg length discrepancy, and the relationship between the knee axis and femur/tibia segment. The maximum a posteriori problem is formulated as a factor graph and inference is performed via post-hoc, on-manifold global optimization. The method is evaluated (N = 12) for a prescribed human motion profile task. Accuracy of derived knee flexion/extension angle (4.34

^{\circ}

root mean square error (RMSE)) without magnetometers is similar to current state-of-the-art with magnetometer use. The developed framework can be expanded for modeling additional joints and constraints. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors: Applications and Advances in Human Motion Analysis)

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19 pages, 2316 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wearable Biofeedback Improves Human-Robot Compliance during Ankle-Foot Exoskeleton-Assisted Gait Training: A Pre-Post Controlled Study in Healthy Participants

by Cristiana Pinheiro, Joana Figueiredo, Nuno Magalhães and Cristina P. Santos

Sensors 2020, 20(20), 5876; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20205876 - 17 Oct 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3089

Abstract

The adjunctive use of biofeedback systems with exoskeletons may accelerate post-stroke gait rehabilitation. Wearable patient-oriented human-robot interaction-based biofeedback is proposed to improve patient-exoskeleton compliance regarding the interaction torque’s direction (joint motion strategy) and magnitude (user participation strategy) through auditory and vibrotactile cues during assisted gait training, respectively. Parallel physiotherapist-oriented strategies are also proposed such that physiotherapists can follow in real-time a patient’s motor performance towards effective involvement during training. A preliminary pre-post controlled study was conducted with eight healthy participants to conclude about the biofeedback’s efficacy during gait training driven by an ankle-foot exoskeleton and guided by a technical person. For the study group, performance related to the interaction torque’s direction increased during (p-value = 0.07) and after (p-value = 0.07) joint motion training. Further, the performance regarding the interaction torque’s magnitude significantly increased during (p-value = 0.03) and after (p-value = 68.59 × 10⁻³) user participation training. The experimental group and a technical person reported promising usability of the biofeedback and highlighted the importance of the timely cues from physiotherapist-oriented strategies. Less significant improvements in patient–exoskeleton compliance were observed in the control group. The overall findings suggest that the proposed biofeedback was able to improve the participant-exoskeleton compliance by enhancing human-robot interaction; thus, it may be a powerful tool to accelerate post-stroke ankle-foot deformity recovery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors: Applications and Advances in Human Motion Analysis)

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14 pages, 1736 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimating Lower Extremity Running Gait Kinematics with a Single Accelerometer: A Deep Learning Approach

by Mohsen Gholami, Christopher Napier and Carlo Menon

Sensors 2020, 20(10), 2939; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20102939 - 22 May 2020

Cited by 51 | Viewed by 6326

Abstract

Abnormal running kinematics are associated with an increased incidence of lower extremity injuries among runners. Accurate and unobtrusive running kinematic measurement plays an important role in the detection of gait abnormalities and the prevention of injuries among runners. Inertial-based methods have been proposed to address this need. However, previous methods require cumbersome sensor setup or participant-specific calibration. This study aims to validate a shoe-mounted accelerometer for sagittal plane lower extremity angle measurement during running based on a deep learning approach. A convolutional neural network (CNN) architecture was selected as the regression model to generalize in inter-participant scenarios and to minimize poorly estimated joints. Motion and accelerometer data were recorded from ten participants while running on a treadmill at five different speeds. The reference joint angles were measured by an optical motion capture system. The CNN model predictions deviated from the reference angles with a root mean squared error (RMSE) of less than 3.5° and 6.5° in intra- and inter-participant scenarios, respectively. Moreover, we provide an estimation of six important gait events with a mean absolute error of less than 2.5° and 6.5° in intra- and inter-participants scenarios, respectively. This study highlights an appealing minimal sensor setup approach for gait analysis purposes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors: Applications and Advances in Human Motion Analysis)

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12 pages, 1485 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gait Characteristics under Imposed Challenge Speed Conditions in Patients with Parkinson’s Disease During Overground Walking

by Myeounggon Lee, Changhong Youm, Byungjoo Noh, Hwayoung Park and Sang-Myung Cheon

Sensors 2020, 20(7), 2132; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20072132 - 10 Apr 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2837

Abstract

Evaluating gait stability at slower or faster speeds and self-preferred speeds based on continuous steps may assist in determining the severity of motor symptoms in Parkinson’s disease (PD) patients. This study aimed to investigate the gait ability at imposed speed conditions in PD patients during overground walking. Overall, 74 PD patients and 52 age-matched healthy controls were recruited. Levodopa was administered to patients in the PD group, and all participants completed imposed slower, preferred, and faster speed walking tests along a straight 15-m walkway wearing shoe-type inertial measurement units. Reliability of the slower and faster conditions between the estimated and measured speeds indicated excellent agreement for PD patients and controls. PD patients demonstrated higher gait asymmetry (GA) and coefficient of variance (CV) for stride length and stance phase than the controls at slower speeds and higher CVs for phases for single support, double support, and stance. CV of the double support phase could distinguish between PD patients and controls at faster speeds. The GA and CVs of stride length and phase-related variables were associated with motor symptoms in PD patients. Speed conditions should be considered during gait analysis. Gait variability could evaluate the severity of motor symptoms in PD patients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors: Applications and Advances in Human Motion Analysis)

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14 pages, 1317 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gait Characteristics Based on Shoe-Type Inertial Measurement Units in Healthy Young Adults during Treadmill Walking

by Myeounggon Lee, Changhong Youm, Byungjoo Noh and Hwayoung Park

Sensors 2020, 20(7), 2095; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20072095 - 8 Apr 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2804

Abstract

This study investigated the gait characteristics of healthy young adults using shoe-type inertial measurement units (IMU) during treadmill walking. A total of 1478 participants were tested. Principal component analyses (PCA) were conducted to determine which principal components (PC_s) best defined the characteristics of healthy young adults. A non-hierarchical cluster analysis was conducted to evaluate the essential gait ability, according to the results of the PC₁ score. One-way repeated analysis of variance with the Bonferroni correction was used to compare gait performances in the cluster groups. PCA outcomes indicated 76.9% variance for PC₁–PC₆, where PC₁ (gait variability (GV): 18.5%), PC₂ (pace: 17.8%), PC₃ (rhythm and phase: 13.9%), and PC₄ (bilateral coordination: 11.2%) were the gait-related factors. All of the pace, rhythm, GV, and variables for bilateral coordination classified the gait ability in the cluster groups. We suggest that the treadmill walking task may be reliable to evaluate the gait performances, which may provide insight into understanding the decline of gait ability. The presented results are considered meaningful for understanding the gait patterns of healthy adults and may prove useful as reference outcomes for future gait analyses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors: Applications and Advances in Human Motion Analysis)

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21 pages, 3728 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on a Pedestrian Crossing Intention Recognition Model Based on Natural Observation Data

by Hongjia Zhang, Yanjuan Liu, Chang Wang, Rui Fu, Qinyu Sun and Zhen Li

Sensors 2020, 20(6), 1776; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20061776 - 23 Mar 2020

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4681

Abstract

Accurate identification of pedestrian crossing intention is of great significance to the safe and efficient driving of future fully automated vehicles in the city. This paper focuses on pedestrian intention recognition on the basis of pedestrian detection and tracking. A large number of natural crossing sequence data of pedestrians and vehicles are first collected by a laser scanner and HD camera, then 1980 effective crossing samples of pedestrians are selected. Influencing parameter sets of pedestrian crossing intention are then obtained through statistical analysis. Finally, long short-term memory network with attention mechanism (AT-LSTM) model is proposed. Compared with the support vector machine (SVM) model, results show that when the pedestrian crossing intention is recognized 0 s prior to crossing, the recognition accuracy of the AT-LSTM model for pedestrian crossing intention is 96.15%, which is 6.07% higher than that of SVM model; when the pedestrian crossing intention is recognized 0.6 s prior, the recognition accuracy of AT-LSTM model is 90.68%, which is 4.85% higher than that of the SVM model. The determination of pedestrian crossing intention parameter set and the more accurate recognition of pedestrian intention provided in this work provide a foundation for future fully automated driving vehicles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors: Applications and Advances in Human Motion Analysis)

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