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Toxins
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Snake Venom: Toxicology and Associated Countermeasures
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Snake Venom: Toxicology and Associated Countermeasures

A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Animal Venoms".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 September 2024 | Viewed by 3422

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Nicholas Youngman

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Reptile Department, Billabong Sanctuary, Nome, QLD 4816, Australia
Interests: animal–human conflict; anticoagulants; antivenom; coagulopathy; australian elapids; prothrombinase complex; venom phospholipase A2

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

I am pleased to invite you to contribute to this Special Issue of Toxins which will focus on all aspects of the toxicology of snakebite envenoming with respect to accompanying countermeasures. Snakebite remains one of the world’s most neglected tropical diseases, with antivenom being administered as the only current specific treatment option utilized for the neutralization of toxin activity. Antivenom continues to be limited in its effectiveness, however, with multiple limiting factors affecting its availability and implementation in reducing the morbidity and mortality associated with snakebite envenoming. Animal–human conflict is projected to continually increase as human populations and densities continue to increase. Conflict with snakes is most certainly no exception, reinforcing the dire need for additional research and effective countermeasures.           

This Special Issue aims to give further insight into cases and research that details the toxicological effects of snakebite envenoming around the world and evaluated the continued efficacy of current countermeasures alongside novel treatments. Additionally, papers on the functional activities of toxins and clinical syndromes from medically relevant species or previously under or entirely uninvestigated species are welcome.

Original studies or reviews detailing snakebite envenoming cases, including toxicological effects, treatment, and outcomes, are welcome, as well as original research articles and reviews which investigate all aspects of snake venom toxicological activities and potential countermeasures to neutralize toxin activity. Research which focuses on novel treatment options such as small molecule therapeutics is also of particular interest.

Dr. Nicholas Youngman
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxins is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • antivenom
  • animal–human conflict
  • envenomation
  • pathophysiology
  • small-molecule therapeutics
  • snakebite

Published Papers (3 papers)

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Research

12 pages, 976 KiB  
Article
Effect of Seaweed-Derived Fucoidans from Undaria pinnatifida and Fucus vesiculosus on Coagulant, Proteolytic, and Phospholipase A2 Activities of Snake Bothrops jararaca, B. jararacussu, and B. neuwiedi Venom
by Camila Castro-Pinheiro, Luiz Carlos Simas Pereira Junior, Eladio Flores Sanchez, Ana Cláudia Rodrigues da Silva, Corinna A. Dwan, Samuel S. Karpiniec, Alan Trevor Critchley and Andre Lopes Fuly
Toxins 2024, 16(4), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16040188 - 12 Apr 2024
Viewed by 429
Abstract
Background: Snakebite envenomation (SBE) causes diverse toxic effects in humans, including disability and death. Current antivenom therapies effectively prevent death but fail to block local tissue damage, leading to an increase in the severity of envenomation; thus, seeking alternative treatments is crucial. Methods: [...] Read more.
Background: Snakebite envenomation (SBE) causes diverse toxic effects in humans, including disability and death. Current antivenom therapies effectively prevent death but fail to block local tissue damage, leading to an increase in the severity of envenomation; thus, seeking alternative treatments is crucial. Methods: This study analyzed the potential of two fucoidan sulfated polysaccharides extracted from brown seaweeds Fucus vesiculosus (FVF) and Undaria pinnatifida (UPF) against the fibrinogen or plasma coagulation, proteolytic, and phospholipase A2 (PLA2) activities of Bothrops jararaca, B. jararacussu, and B. neuwiedi venom. The toxicity of FVF and UPF was assessed by the hemocompatibility test. Results: FVF and UPF did not lyse human red blood cells. FVF and UPF inhibited the proteolytic activity of Bothrops jararaca, B. jararacussu, and B. neuwiedi venom by approximately 25%, 50%, and 75%, respectively, while all venoms led to a 20% inhibition of PLA2 activity. UPF and FVF delayed plasma coagulation caused by the venoms of B. jararaca and B. neuwiedi but did not affect the activity of B. jararacussu venom. FVF and UPF blocked the coagulation of fibrinogen induced by all these Bothropic venoms. Conclusion: FVF and UPF may be of importance as adjuvants for SBE caused by species of Bothrops, which are the most medically relevant snakebite incidents in South America, especially Brazil. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snake Venom: Toxicology and Associated Countermeasures)
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12 pages, 2418 KiB  
Article
One-Step Affinity Purification of Leucine-Rich α2-Glycoproteins from Snake Sera and Characterization of Their Phospholipase A2-Inhibitory Activities as β-Type Phospholipase A2 Inhibitors
by Ryoichi Shirai, Kana Shibata, Shinobu Fujii, Rikiro Fukunaga and Seiji Inoue
Toxins 2024, 16(3), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16030126 - 01 Mar 2024
Viewed by 974
Abstract
Snakes contain three types of phospholipase A2 (PLA2)-inhibitory proteins in their blood, PLIα, β, and γ, which protect them from their own venom, PLA2. PLIβ is the snake ortholog of leucine-rich α2 glycoprotein (LRG). Since autologous cytochrome [...] Read more.
Snakes contain three types of phospholipase A2 (PLA2)-inhibitory proteins in their blood, PLIα, β, and γ, which protect them from their own venom, PLA2. PLIβ is the snake ortholog of leucine-rich α2 glycoprotein (LRG). Since autologous cytochrome c (Cyt c) serves as an endogenous ligand for LRG, in this study, we purified snake LRGs from various snake serum samples using Cyt c affinity chromatography. All purified snake LRGs were found to be dimers linked by disulfide bonds. Laticauda semifasciata and Naja kaouthia LRGs showed no inhibitory activity against L. semifasciata PLA2 and weak inhibitory activity against Gloydius brevicauda basic PLA2. Elaphe climacophora PLIβ had weaker inhibitory activity against G. brevicauda basic PLA2 than G. brevicauda and Elaphe quadrivirgata PLIs, which are abundant in blood and known to neutralize G. brevicauda basic PLA2. Protobothrops flavoviridis LRG showed no inhibitory activity against basic venom PLA2, PL-X, or G. brevicauda basic PLA2. Binding analysis of P. flavoviridis LRG using surface plasmon resonance showed very strong binding to snake Cyt c, followed by that to horse Cyt c, weak binding to yeast Cyt c, and no binding to P. flavoviridis PL-X or BPI/II. We also deduced the amino acid sequences of L. semifasciata and P. flavoviridis LRG by means of cDNA sequencing and compared them with those of other known sequences of PLIs and LRGs. This study concluded that snake LRG can potentially inhibit basic PLA2, but, whether it actually functions as a PLA2-inhibitory protein, PLIβ, depends on the snake. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snake Venom: Toxicology and Associated Countermeasures)
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13 pages, 1864 KiB  
Article
Immunological Cross-Reactivity and Preclinical Assessment of a Colombian Anticoral Antivenom against the Venoms of Three Micrurus Species
by Ariadna Rodríguez-Vargas, Adrián Marcelo Franco-Vásquez, Miguel Triana-Cerón, Shaha Noor Alam-Rojas, Derly C. Escobar-Wilches, Gerardo Corzo, Fernando Lazcano-Pérez, Roberto Arreguín-Espinosa and Francisco Ruiz-Gómez
Toxins 2024, 16(2), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16020104 - 15 Feb 2024
Viewed by 1654
Abstract
Snakebite accident treatment requires the administration of antivenoms that provide efficacy and effectiveness against several snake venoms of the same genus or family. The low number of immunogenic components in venom mixtures that allow the production of antivenoms consequently gives them partial neutralization [...] Read more.
Snakebite accident treatment requires the administration of antivenoms that provide efficacy and effectiveness against several snake venoms of the same genus or family. The low number of immunogenic components in venom mixtures that allow the production of antivenoms consequently gives them partial neutralization and a suboptimal pharmacological response. This study evaluates the immunorecognition and neutralizing efficacy of the polyvalent anticoral antivenom from the Instituto Nacional de Salud (INS) of Colombia against the heterologous endemic venoms of Micrurus medemi, and M. sangilensis, and M. helleri by assessing immunoreactivity through affinity chromatography, ELISA, Western blot, and neutralization capability. Immunorecognition towards the venoms of M. medemi and M. sangilensis showed values of 62% and 68% of the protein composition according to the immunoaffinity matrix, respectively. The analysis by Western blot depicted the highest recognition patterns for M. medemi, followed by M. sangilensis, and finally by M. helleri. These findings suggest that the venom compositions are closely related and exhibit similar recognition by the antivenom. According to enzyme immunoassays, M. helleri requires a higher amount of antivenom to achieve recognition than the others. Besides reinforcing the evaluation of INS antivenom capability, this work recommends the use of M. helleri in the production of Colombian antisera. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snake Venom: Toxicology and Associated Countermeasures)
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