Editorial

2 pages, 196 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

by Mary T. Fletcher and Gabriele Netzel

Toxins 2020, 12(4), 236; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12040236 - 08 Apr 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3408

Natural toxins are poisonous secondary metabolites produced by living organisms, which are typically not harmful to the organisms themselves but can impact on human or animal health when consumed [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety and Natural Toxins)

Research

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8 pages, 1262 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bioaccumulation and Distribution of Indospicine and Its Foregut Metabolites in Camels Fed Indigofera spicata

by Gabriele Netzel, Eddie T. T. Tan, Mukan Yin, Cindy Giles, Ken W. L. Yong, Rafat Al Jassim and Mary T. Fletcher

Toxins 2019, 11(3), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11030169 - 19 Mar 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2570

Abstract

In vitro experiments have demonstrated that camel foregut-fluid has the capacity to metabolize indospicine, a natural toxin which causes hepatotoxicosis, but such metabolism is in competition with absorption and outflow of indospicine from the different segments of the digestive system. Six young camels [...] Read more.

In vitro experiments have demonstrated that camel foregut-fluid has the capacity to metabolize indospicine, a natural toxin which causes hepatotoxicosis, but such metabolism is in competition with absorption and outflow of indospicine from the different segments of the digestive system. Six young camels were fed Indigofera spicata (337 µg indospicine/kg BW/day) for 32 days, at which time three camels were euthanized. The remaining camels were monitored for a further 100 days after cessation of this indospicine diet. In a retrospective investigation, relative levels of indospicine foregut-metabolism products were examined by UHPLC-MS/MS in plasma, collected during both accumulation and depletion stages of this experiment. The metabolite 2-aminopimelamic acid could be detected at low levels in almost all plasma samples, whereas 2-aminopimelic acid could not be detected. In the euthanized camels, 2-aminopimelamic acid could be found in all tissues except muscle, whereas 2-aminopimelic acid was only found in the kidney, pancreas, and liver tissues. The clearance rate for these metabolites was considerably greater than for indospicine, which was still present in plasma of the remaining camels 100 days after cessation of Indigofera consumption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety and Natural Toxins)

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9 pages, 452 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Aflatoxin Contamination of Milk Marketed in Pakistan: A Longitudinal Study

by Agha Waqar Yunus, Nida Imtiaz, Haider Khan, Mohammed Nawaz Mohammed Ibrahim and Yusuf Zafar

Toxins 2019, 11(2), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11020110 - 13 Feb 2019

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 4459

Abstract

A longitudinal one-year study was conducted to determine aflatoxin M₁ levels in different types of milk marketed in Pakistan. Processed and raw liquid milk from 21 sources, two milk powder and six tea whitener brands were sampled on monthly basis from Islamabad. [...] Read more.

A longitudinal one-year study was conducted to determine aflatoxin M₁ levels in different types of milk marketed in Pakistan. Processed and raw liquid milk from 21 sources, two milk powder and six tea whitener brands were sampled on monthly basis from Islamabad. The aflatoxin M₁ levels in liquid milk were lower (p < 0.05) in summer (April to July) compared with the levels in winter (January, November and December). The mean aflatoxin M₁ levels were 254.9, 939.5, and 1535.0 ng/L in UHT, pasteurized, and raw milk, respectively (differing at p < 0.001). The mean toxin level in powdered milk after reconstitution was 522.1 ng/L. Overall, 12.9, 41.0, 91.9 and 50.0% of the UHT, pasteurized, raw and powdered milk samples, respectively, exceeded the Codex maximum tolerable limit of 500 ng of aflatoxin M₁/L. It was estimated that consumers of raw and processed milk were exposed to 11.9 and 4.5 ng aflatoxin M₁, respectively, per kg of body weight daily. The study indicates potential aflatoxin M₁ exposure risks for the consumers of raw milk in the country. The levels of the toxin though comparatively lower in milk powder, requires attention as this type of milk is consumed by infants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety and Natural Toxins)

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14 pages, 2187 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of Shiga Toxin 2 Produced by Escherichia coli in Foods Using a Novel AlphaLISA

by Cheryl M. Armstrong, Leah E. Ruth, Joseph A. Capobianco, Terence P. Strobaugh, Jr., Fernando M. Rubio and Andrew G. Gehring

Toxins 2018, 10(11), 422; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins10110422 - 23 Oct 2018

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4429

Abstract

Amplified luminescent proximity homogenous assay-linked immunosorbent assay (AlphaLISA) is comprised of a bead-based immunoassay that is used for small molecule detection. In this study, a novel AlphaLISA was developed and optimized for the detection of Shiga-toxin 2 (Stx2). Efficacy and sensitivity trials showed [...] Read more.

Amplified luminescent proximity homogenous assay-linked immunosorbent assay (AlphaLISA) is comprised of a bead-based immunoassay that is used for small molecule detection. In this study, a novel AlphaLISA was developed and optimized for the detection of Shiga-toxin 2 (Stx2). Efficacy and sensitivity trials showed the AlphaLISA could detect ≥0.5 ng/mL of purified Stx2, which was comparable to the industry-standard enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) tests for Stx2 detection. In addition, evaluation of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC)-inoculated Romaine lettuce and ground beef samples demonstrated that both the AlphaLISA and the ELISA were able to discern uninoculated samples from 1× and 10× diluted samples containing ~10 CFU/mL of STEC enriched in modified tryptic soy broth with mitomycin C for 16 h. Overall, the increased signal-to-noise ratios indicated a more robust signal was produced by the AlphaLISA compared to the ELISA and the delineation of higher toxin concentrations without the need for sample dilution implied a greater dynamic range for the AlphaLISA. Implementation of the newly developed AlphaLISA will allow for more rapid analysis for Stx2 with less manual manipulation, thus improving assay throughput and the ability to automate sample screening while maintaining detection limits of 0.5 ng/mL. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety and Natural Toxins)

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12 pages, 1604 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Release of Indospicine from Contaminated Camel Meat following Cooking and Simulated Gastrointestinal Digestion: Implications for Human Consumption

by Saira Sultan, Cindy Giles, Gabriele Netzel, Simone A. Osborne, Michael E. Netzel and Mary T. Fletcher

Toxins 2018, 10(9), 356; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins10090356 - 03 Sep 2018

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4322

Abstract

Indospicine, a hepatotoxic arginine analog, occurs in leguminous plants of the Indigofera genus and accumulates in the tissues of grazing animals that consume these plants. Furthermore, indospicine has caused toxicity in dogs following consumption of indospicine-contaminated meat; however, the potential impact on human [...] Read more.

Indospicine, a hepatotoxic arginine analog, occurs in leguminous plants of the Indigofera genus and accumulates in the tissues of grazing animals that consume these plants. Furthermore, indospicine has caused toxicity in dogs following consumption of indospicine-contaminated meat; however, the potential impact on human health is unknown. The present study was designed to determine the effect of simulated human gastrointestinal digestion on the release and degradation of indospicine from contaminated camel meat following microwave cooking. Results showed no significant (p > 0.05) indospicine degradation during cooking or in vitro digestion. However, approximately 70% indospicine was released from the meat matrix into the liquid digesta during the gastric phase (in the presence of pepsin) and increased to >90% in the intestinal phase (with pancreatic enzymes). Following human consumption of contaminated meat, this soluble and more bioaccessible fraction of intact indospicine could be readily available for absorption by the small intestine, potentially circulating indospicine throughout the human body to tissues where it could accumulate and cause detrimental toxic effects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety and Natural Toxins)

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13 pages, 2570 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tissue Distribution and Elimination of Ciguatoxins in Tridacna maxima (Tridacnidae, Bivalvia) Fed Gambierdiscus polynesiensis

by Mélanie Roué, Hélène Taiana Darius, André Ung, Jérôme Viallon, Manoella Sibat, Philipp Hess, Zouher Amzil and Mireille Chinain

Toxins 2018, 10(5), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins10050189 - 10 May 2018

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4294

Abstract

Ciguatera is a foodborne disease caused by the consumption of seafood contaminated with ciguatoxins (CTXs). Ciguatera-like poisoning events involving giant clams (Tridacna maxima) are reported occasionally from Pacific islands communities. The present study aimed at providing insights into CTXs tissue distribution [...] Read more.

Ciguatera is a foodborne disease caused by the consumption of seafood contaminated with ciguatoxins (CTXs). Ciguatera-like poisoning events involving giant clams (Tridacna maxima) are reported occasionally from Pacific islands communities. The present study aimed at providing insights into CTXs tissue distribution and detoxification rate in giant clams exposed to toxic cells of Gambierdiscus polynesiensis, in the framework of seafood safety assessment. In a first experiment, three groups of tissue (viscera, flesh and mantle) were dissected from exposed individuals, and analyzed for their toxicity using the neuroblastoma cell-based assay (CBA-N2a) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analyses. The viscera, flesh, and mantle were shown to retain 65%, 25%, and 10% of the total toxin burden, respectively. All tissues reached levels above the safety limit recommended for human consumption, suggesting that evisceration alone, a practice widely used among local populations, is not enough to ensure seafood safety. In a second experiment, the toxin content in contaminated giant clams was followed at different time points (0, 2, 4, and 6 days post-exposure). Observations suggest that no toxin elimination is visible in T. maxima throughout 6 days of detoxification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety and Natural Toxins)

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Review

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20 pages, 1666 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Mycotoxins and Mycotoxin Producing Fungi in Pollen: Review

by Aleksandar Ž. Kostić, Danijel D. Milinčić, Tanja S. Petrović, Vesna S. Krnjaja, Sladjana P. Stanojević, Miroljub B. Barać, Živoslav Lj. Tešić and Mirjana B. Pešić

Toxins 2019, 11(2), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11020064 - 24 Jan 2019

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 6835

Abstract

Due to its divergent chemical composition and good nutritional properties, pollen is not only important as a potential food supplement but also as a good substrate for the development of different microorganisms. Among such microorganisms, toxigenic fungi are extremely dangerous as they can [...] Read more.

Due to its divergent chemical composition and good nutritional properties, pollen is not only important as a potential food supplement but also as a good substrate for the development of different microorganisms. Among such microorganisms, toxigenic fungi are extremely dangerous as they can synthesize mycotoxins as a part of their metabolic pathways. Furthermore, favorable conditions that enable the synthesis of mycotoxins (adequate temperature, relative humidity, pH, and a_w values) are found frequently during pollen collection and/or production process. Internationally, several different mycotoxins have been identified in pollen samples, with a noted predominance of aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, and T-2 toxin. Mycotoxins are, generally speaking, extremely harmful for humans and other mammals. Current EU legislation contains guidelines on the permissible content of this group of compounds, but without information pertaining to the content of mycotoxins in pollen. Currently only aflatoxins have been researched and discussed in the literature in regard to proposed limits. Therefore, the aim of this review is to give information about the presence of different mycotoxins in pollen samples collected all around the world, to propose possible aflatoxin contamination pathways, and to emphasize the importance of a regular mycotoxicological analysis of pollen. Furthermore, a suggestion is made regarding the legal regulation of pollen as a food supplement and the proposed tolerable limits for other mycotoxins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety and Natural Toxins)

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15 pages, 1585 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Multi-(myco)toxins in Malting and Brewing By-Products

by Kristina Mastanjević, Jasmina Lukinac, Marko Jukić, Bojan Šarkanj, Vinko Krstanović and Krešimir Mastanjević

Toxins 2019, 11(1), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11010030 - 09 Jan 2019

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 6340

Abstract

Fungi, yeasts, and bacteria are common microorganisms on cereals used in malting and brewing industries. These microorganisms are mostly associated with the safety and quality of malt and beer, but also with the health safety of by-products used in animal nutrition. The real [...] Read more.

Fungi, yeasts, and bacteria are common microorganisms on cereals used in malting and brewing industries. These microorganisms are mostly associated with the safety and quality of malt and beer, but also with the health safety of by-products used in animal nutrition. The real problem is their harmful metabolites—toxins that, due to their thermostable properties, can easily be transferred to malting and brewing by-products. Besides fungal metabolites, other toxins originating from plants can be harmful to animal health. Precise and accurate analytical techniques broadened the spectrum of known toxins originating from microorganisms and plants that can pose a threat to animal health. Multi-(myco)toxin analyses are advanced and useful tools for the assessment of product safety, and legislation should follow up and make some important changes to regulate yet unregulated, but highly occurring, microbial and plant toxins in malting and brewing by-products used for animal feed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety and Natural Toxins)

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