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Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins (Volume II)

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A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Mycotoxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 July 2024 | Viewed by 19314

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Dr. Carmela Maria Montone

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Department of Chemistry, SAPIENZA Università di Roma, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
Interests: proteomics; peptidomics; protein extraction and purification; bioactive peptide analysis; method development and validation; lipidomics
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Dr. Chiara Cavaliere

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Department of Chemistry, SAPIENZA Università di Roma, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
Interests: liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry; mycotoxins; environmental contaminants; food contaminants; polyphenols; sample preparation; metabolomics; peptidomics; bioactive peptides
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Dear Colleagues,

Following on from the first Special Issue on the topic, “Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins Volume Ⅱ” will continue to focus on the most recent research on the development of novel and/or rapid methods for mycotoxin determination, and to propose new strategies for monitoring and/or reducing mycotoxin contamination. Innovative sample preparation techniques or protocols and the possibility of multiclass mycotoxin detection will be very positively considered for possible inclusion in this Special Issue. Both methods based on (bio)sensors and chromatography with various detectors (including mass spectrometry) are welcome. Applications of already-published methods on new matrices without any modification will not be accepted. However, extensive studies and monitoring on the spread of contamination through the food production chain could be of interest for this collection.

Therefore, contributions and experiences in the field of mycotoxins are welcome. The ambitious goal of this Special Issue is to provide new knowledge about the detection, control and contamination of mycotoxins.

Dr. Carmela Maria Montone
Dr. Chiara Cavaliere
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxins is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

mycotoxins
sensors
liquid chromatography
gas chromatography
sample preparation
food safety
food produc-tion chain
multi-mycotoxin determination

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Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins in Toxins (12 articles)

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12 pages, 1299 KiB

Open AccessArticle

First Synthesis of Ergotamine-¹³CD₃ and Ergotaminine-¹³CD₃ from Unlabeled Ergotamine

by Sven-Oliver Herter, Hajo Haase and Matthias Koch

Toxins 2024, 16(4), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16040199 - 20 Apr 2024

Viewed by 299

Abstract

Ergot alkaloids (EAs) formed by Claviceps fungi are one of the most common food contaminants worldwide, affecting cereals such as rye, wheat, and barley. To accurately determine the level of contamination and to monitor EAs maximum levels set by the European Union, the six most common EAs (so-called priority EAs) and their corresponding epimers are quantified using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). The quantification of EAs in complex food matrices without appropriate internal standards is challenging but currently carried out in the standard method EN 17425:2021 due to their commercial unavailability. To address the need for isotopically labeled EAs, we focus on two semi-synthetic approaches for the synthesis of these reference standards. Therefore, we investigate the feasibility of the N⁶-demethylation of native ergotamine to yield norergotamine, which can subsequently be remethylated with an isotopically labeled methylating reagent, such as iodomethane (¹³CD₃-I), to yield isotopically labeled ergotamine and its C⁸-epimer ergotaminine. Testing the isotopically labeled ergotamine/-inine against native ergotamine/-inine with HPLC coupled to high-resolution HR-MS/MS proved the structure of ergotamine-¹³CD₃ and ergotaminine-¹³CD₃. Thus, for the first time, we can describe their synthesis from unlabeled, native ergotamine. Furthermore, this approach is promising as a universal way to synthesize other isotopically labeled EAs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins (Volume II))

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18 pages, 1968 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Occurrence Study of Mycotoxins in Plant-Based Beverages Using Liquid Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry

by Romans Pavlenko, Zane Berzina, Ingars Reinholds, Elena Bartkiene and Vadims Bartkevics

Toxins 2024, 16(1), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16010053 - 17 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1412

Abstract

Mycotoxins are toxic mold metabolites that can adversely affect human and animal health. More than 400 mycotoxins have been identified so far. Cereals and nuts are the predominant mycotoxin-contaminated foodstuffs. Plant-based drinks produced from cereals, nuts, and legumes have grown in popularity. The mycotoxins accumulated in these crops may transfer to these beverages. A liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method was developed and optimized for the assessment of 22 mycotoxins in commercially available plant-based drinks in Latvia and Lithuania. A total of 64% of the seventy-two analyzed beverages were positive for one to sixteen mycotoxins, with deoxynivalenol, beauvericin, and enniatins A, B, B1, T-2, and HT-2 toxins detected most frequently. The European Commission has not yet set guidelines for the maximum mycotoxin concentrations in plant-based beverages, nor has the European Food Safety Authority conducted a risk assessment. Therefore, acute exposure studies were provided for the Latvian population based on the assumed replacement of dairy milk with plant-based beverages to ascertain the safety of plant-based milk substitutes. Based on the observed levels of mycotoxin prevalence and contamination levels and assumed exposure, it can be concluded that tested plant-based beverages may be relatively safe. However, exposure to emerging mycotoxins should be considered. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins (Volume II))

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18 pages, 1961 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Environmental Factors on Mould Counts and AFB1 Toxin Production by Aspergillus flavus in Maize

by Krisztina Molnár, Csaba Rácz, Tamás Dövényi-Nagy, Károly Bakó, Tünde Pusztahelyi, Szilvia Kovács, Cintia Adácsi, István Pócsi and Attila Dobos

Toxins 2023, 15(3), 227; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15030227 - 17 Mar 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1838

Abstract

The toxins produced by Aspergillus flavus can significantly inhibit the use of maize. As a result of climate change, toxin production is a problem not only in tropical and subtropical areas but in an increasing number of European countries, including Hungary. The effect of meteorological factors and irrigation on mould colonization and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) mycotoxin production by A. flavus were investigated in natural conditions, as well as the inoculation with a toxigenic isolate in a complex field experiment for three years. As a result of irrigation, the occurrence of fungi increased, and toxin production decreased. The mould count of fungi and toxin accumulation showed differences during the examined growing seasons. The highest AFB1 content was found in 2021. The main environmental factors in predicting mould count were temperature (T_avg, T_max ≥ 30 °C, T_max ≥ 32 °C, T_max ≥ 35 °C) and atmospheric drought (RH_min ≤ 40%). Toxin production was determined by extremely high daily maximum temperatures (T_max ≥ 35 °C). At natural contamination, the effect of T_max ≥ 35 °C on AFB1 was maximal (r = 0.560–0.569) in the R4 stage. In the case of artificial inoculation, correlations with environmental factors were stronger (r = 0.665–0.834) during the R2–R6 stages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins (Volume II))

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14 pages, 2888 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of T-2 Toxin in Wheat and Maize with a Portable Mass Spectrometer

by Chris M. Maragos

Toxins 2023, 15(3), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15030222 - 16 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1553

Abstract

T-2 toxin is a mycotoxin routinely found as a contaminant of cereal grains worldwide. A portable mass spectrometer was adapted to enable the detection of T-2 toxin in wheat and maize by APCI-MS. In order to facilitate rapid testing, a rapid cleanup was used. The method was able to detect T-2 toxin in soft white wheat, hard red wheat, and yellow dent maize and could be used to screen for T-2 at levels above 0.2 mg/kg. The HT-2 toxin was only detectable at very high levels (>0.9 mg/kg). Based on these results, the sensitivity was not sufficient to allow the application of the screening method to these commodities at levels recommended by the European Commission. With a cut-off level of 0.107 mg/kg, the method correctly classified nine of ten reference samples of wheat and maize. The results suggest that portable MS detection of T-2 toxin is feasible. However, additional research will be needed to develop an application sensitive enough to meet regulatory requirements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins (Volume II))

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12 pages, 3075 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Scale-up of Aflatoxin Purification by Centrifugal Partition Chromatography

by Gábor Endre, Babett Edit Nagy, Dániel Hercegfalvi, Csenge Kasuba, Csaba Vágvölgyi and András Szekeres

Toxins 2023, 15(3), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15030178 - 25 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1453

Abstract

Aflatoxins (AFs) are a group of secondary metabolites that cause several diseases in both animals and humans. Since the discovery of this group of toxins, several effects were revealed, such as hepatic changes, carcinoma, failure, and cancer of the liver. In the European Union, there are concentration limits for this group of mycotoxins in food and feed products; thus, these substances are required in their pure forms to prepare reference standards or certified reference materials. In our present work, a liquid–liquid chromatographic method utilizing a toluene/acetic acid/water ternary system was improved. In order to enhance the purification and gain a higher amount of pure AFs in one separation run, a scale-up of the previous separation was carried out. In several scale-up steps—including the determination of the maximum concentration and volume to load on a 250 mL rotor via a loop and via a pump as well, and the quadruplication of the entire separation procedure to a 1000 mL rotor—an efficient scale-up was achieved. Utilizing a 250 mL rotor in an 8-hour workday, altogether approximately 2.2 g of total AFs could be purified with 8.2 liters of solvent, while on a 1000 mL column, approximately 7.8 g AFs could be prepared, utilizing around 31 liters of solvents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins (Volume II))

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21 pages, 2919 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Co-Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Feed for Cattle, Pigs, Poultry, and Sheep in Navarra, a Region of Northern Spain

by Borja Muñoz-Solano and Elena González-Peñas

Toxins 2023, 15(3), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15030172 - 22 Feb 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2342

Abstract

Mycotoxins, toxic compounds produced by fungi on raw materials, such as cereals, represent a serious health hazard. Animals are exposed to them mainly through the ingestion of contaminated feed. This study presents data about the presence and co-occurrence of nine mycotoxins: aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2, ochratoxins A and B, zearalenone (ZEA), deoxynivalenol (DON), and sterigmatocystin (STER), in 400 samples of compound feed for cattle, pigs, poultry, and sheep (100 samples each) collected in Spain (2019–2020). Aflatoxins, ochratoxins, and ZEA were quantified using a previously validated HPLC method using fluorescence detection; whereas DON and STER were quantified using ELISA. Moreover, the obtained results were compared with those obtained in this country and published in the last 5 years. The mycotoxin presence in Spanish feed, especially for ZEA and DON, has been demonstrated. The maximum individual levels found were: AFB1: 6.9 µg/kg in a sample of feed for poultry; OTA: 65.5 µg/kg in a sample of feed for pigs, DON: 887 µg/kg in a sample of feed for sheep, and ZEA: 816 µg/kg in a sample of feed for pigs. Nevertheless, regulated mycotoxins appear, in general, at levels below those regulated by the EU; in fact, the percentage of samples containing concentrations above these limits was very low (from 0% for DON to 2.5% for ZEA). The co-occurrence of mycotoxins has also been demonstrated: 63.5% of the analyzed samples presented detectable levels of two to five mycotoxins. Due to the fact that the distribution of mycotoxins in raw materials can change greatly from year to year with climate conditions or market globalization, regular mycotoxin monitorization in feed is needed to prevent the integration of contaminated materials in the food chain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins (Volume II))

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19 pages, 5551 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Isolation of the Main Pathogens Causing Postharvest Disease in Fresh Angelica sinensis during Different Storage Stages and Impacts of Ozone Treatment on Disease Development and Mycotoxin Production

by Jihui Xi, Dongyun Yang, Huali Xue, Zhiguang Liu, Yang Bi, Yuan Zhang, Xi Yang and Suqin Shang

Toxins 2023, 15(2), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15020154 - 13 Feb 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1399

Abstract

Angelica sinensis, a Chinese herbal medicine, is susceptible to molds during storage, reducing its quality, and even generating mycotoxins with toxic effects on human health. Fresh A. sinensis was harvested from Min County of Gansu Province in China and kept at room temperature. Naturally occurring symptoms were observed during different storage stages. Molds were isolated and identified from the diseased A. sinensis using morphological and molecular biology methods. The impact of ozone treatment on postharvest disease development and mycotoxin production was investigated. The results indicated that A. sinensis decay began on day 7 of storage and progressed thereafter. Nine mold species were isolated and characterized: day 7, two Mucormycetes; day 14, Clonostachys rosea; day 21, two Penicillium species and Aspergillus versicolor; day 28, Alternaria alternata and Trichoderma atroviride; and day 49, Fusarium solani. Ozone treatment markedly inhibited the development of postharvest disease and the mycotoxin production (such as, patulin, 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol, and sterigmatocystin) in the rotten tissue of A. sinensis inoculated with the nine isolates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins (Volume II))

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0 pages, 3854 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Mixtures of Mycotoxins, Phytoestrogens, and Other Secondary Metabolites in Whole-Plant Corn Silages and Total Mixed Rations of Dairy Farms in Central and Northern Mexico

by Felipe Penagos-Tabares, Michael Sulyok, Juan-Ignacio Artavia, Samanta-Irais Flores-Quiroz, César Garzón-Pérez, Ezequías Castillo-Lopez, Luis Zavala, Juan-David Orozco, Johannes Faas, Rudolf Krska and Qendrim Zebeli

Toxins 2023, 15(2), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15020153 - 13 Feb 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2160 | Correction

Abstract

Mycotoxins and endocrine disruptors such as phytoestrogens can affect cattle health, reproduction, and productivity. Most studies of mycotoxins in dairy feeds in Mexico and worldwide have been focused on a few (regulated) mycotoxins. In contrast, less known fungal toxins, phytoestrogens, and other metabolites have been neglected and underestimated. This study analyzed a broad spectrum (>800) of mycotoxins, phytoestrogens, and fungal, plant, and unspecific secondary metabolites in whole-plant corn silages (WPCSs) and total mixed rations (TMRs) collected from 19 Mexican dairy farms. A validated multi-metabolite liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization–tandem mass spectrometric (LC/ESI–MS/MS) method was used. Our results revealed 125 of >800 tested (potentially toxic) secondary metabolites. WPCSs/TMRs in Mexico presented ubiquitous contamination with mycotoxins, phytoestrogens, and other metabolites. The average number of mycotoxins per TMR was 24, ranging from 9 to 31. Fusarium-derived secondary metabolites showed the highest frequencies, concentrations, and diversity among the detected fungal compounds. The most frequently detected mycotoxins in TMRs were zearalenone (ZEN) (100%), fumonisin B1 (FB1) (84%), and deoxynivalenol (84%). Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA), previously reported in Mexico, were not detected. All TMR samples tested positive for phytoestrogens. Among the investigated dietary ingredients, corn stover, sorghum silage, and concentrate proportions were the most correlated with levels of total mycotoxins, fumonisins (Fs), and ergot alkaloids, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins (Volume II))

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15 pages, 1497 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using Molecular Spectroscopic Techniques (NIR and ATR-FT/MIR) Coupling with Various Chemometrics to Test Possibility to Reveal Chemical and Molecular Response of Cool-Season Adapted Wheat Grain to Ergot Alkaloids

by Haitao Shi and Peiqiang Yu

Toxins 2023, 15(2), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15020151 - 13 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1477

Abstract

The objectives of this study were to explore the possibility of using near infrared (NIR) and Fourier transform mid-infrared spectroscopy—attenuated total reflectance (ATR-FT/MIR) molecular spectroscopic techniques as non-invasive and rapid methods for the quantification of six major ergot alkaloids (EAs) in cool-season wheat. In total, 107 wheat grain samples were collected, and the concentration of six major EAs was analyzed using the liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry technique. The mean content of the total EAs—ergotamine, ergosine, ergometrine, ergocryptine, ergocristine, and ergocornine—was 1099.3, 337.5, 56.9, 150.6, 142.1, 743.3, and 97.45 μg/kg, respectively. The NIR spectra were taken from 680 to 2500 nm, and the MIR spectra were recorded from 4000–700 cm⁻¹. The spectral data were transformed by various preprocessing techniques (which included: FD: first derivative; SNV: standard normal variate; FD-SNV: first derivative + SNV; MSC: multiplicative scattering correction; SNV-Detrending: SNV + detrending; SD-SNV: second derivative + SNV; SNV-SD: SNV + first derivative); and sensitive wavelengths were selected. The partial least squares (PLS) regression models were developed for EA validation statistics. Results showed that the constructed models obtained weak calibration and cross-validation parameters, and none of the models was able to accurately predict external samples. The relatively low levels of EAs in the contaminated wheat samples might be lower than the detection limits of the NIR and ATR-FT/MIR spectroscopies. More research is needed to determine the limitations of the ATR-FT/MIR and NIR techniques for quantifying EAs in various sample matrices and to develop acceptable models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins (Volume II))

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12 pages, 1569 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Zearalenone (ZEN) and Its Metabolite Levels in Tissues of Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) from Southern Italy: A Pilot Study

by Consiglia Longobardi, Sara Damiano, Gianmarco Ferrara, Serena Montagnaro, Valentina Meucci, Luigi Intorre, Samanta Bacci, Luigi Esposito, Nadia Piscopo, Antonio Rubino, Antonio Raffaele, Salvatore Florio and Roberto Ciarcia

Toxins 2023, 15(1), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15010056 - 09 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1966

Abstract

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a non-steroidal estrogenic mycotoxin produced by the fungi of the Fusarium genera, and is a contaminant of cereals and plant products. ZEN and its metabolites are considered endocrine disruptors, and could have various toxic effects on animals and humans. In recent years, there has been a significant demographic increase in wild boar (Sus scrofa) in many mountainous and hilly areas of Italy, including the Campania region, mainly due to global climate change. The wild boar can be defined as a generalist and omnivorous species capable of varying its diet; therefore, it can play a role as an environmental bioindicator towards contaminants such as mycotoxins. This study was conducted to evaluate, for the first time, the concentrations of ZEN and its metabolites in the liver, kidney, and muscle of 82 wild boars shot in their habitat by hunters with hunting permits in different localities of Avellino province (Campania region, Southern Italy) from 2021 to 2022. The samples were collected and analyzed with an SPE clean-up and high-pressure liquid chromatography method with fluorescence detection. The results indicated that ZEN and α-Zearalenol were present in most of the samples, suggesting that a plan to monitor these mycoestrogens is essential to achieve the goals of “One Health”. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins (Volume II))

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Review

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21 pages, 2050 KiB

Open AccessReview

Mycotoxin Contamination in Hazelnut: Current Status, Analytical Strategies, and Future Prospects

by Maria Michela Salvatore, Anna Andolfi and Rosario Nicoletti

Toxins 2023, 15(2), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15020099 - 19 Jan 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2415

Abstract

Hazelnuts represent a potential source of mycotoxins that pose a public health issue due to their increasing consumption as food ingredients worldwide. Hazelnuts contamination by mycotoxins may derive from fungal infections occurring during fruit development, or in postharvest. The present review considers the available data on mycotoxins detected in hazelnuts, on fungal species reported as infecting hazelnut fruit, and general analytical approaches adopted for mycotoxin investigation. Prompted by the European safety regulation concerning hazelnuts, many analytical methods have focused on the determination of levels of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and total aflatoxins. An overview of the available data shows that a multiplicity of fungal species and further mycotoxins have been detected in hazelnuts, including anthraquinones, cyclodepsipeptides, ochratoxins, sterigmatocystins, trichothecenes, and more. Hence, the importance is highlighted in developing suitable methods for the concurrent detection of a broad spectrum of these mycotoxins. Moreover, control strategies to be employed before and after harvest in the aim of controlling the fungal contamination, and in reducing or inactivating mycotoxins in hazelnuts, are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins (Volume II))

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Planned Papers

The below list represents only planned manuscripts. Some of these manuscripts have not been received by the Editorial Office yet. Papers submitted to MDPI journals are subject to peer-review.

Title: A pilot study on Zearalenone (ZEN) and its metabolites levels in tissues of wild boar (Sus scrofa) from Southern Italy

Author Name: Roberto Ciarcia

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