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Water Scarcity: From Ancient to Modern Times and the Future

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A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Water Use and Scarcity".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 August 2022) | Viewed by 91722

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Vasileios Tzanakakis

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Guest Editor

Department of Agriculture, School of Agricultural Sciences, Hellenic Mediterranean University, 71410 Heraklion, Greece
Interests: soil (bio)chemistry; soil fertility; nitrogen and carbon cycling; natural resources management; reuse in agriculture
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Giovanni De Feo

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Department of Industrial Engineering (DIIN), University of Salerno, 84084 Fisciano, SA, Italy
Interests: circular economy; environmental communication; life-cycle assessment; recycling; waste management; water and wastewater in ancient civilizations; water supply
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Andreas Angelakis

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

1. HAO-Demeter, Agricultural Research Institution of Crete, 71300 Iraklion, Greece
2. Union of Hellenic Water Supply and Sewerage Operators, 41222 Larissa, Greece
Interests: wastewater treatment and water reuse; small and decentralized wastewater management systems; water technologies in ancient civilizations
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Many people still hold stubbornly to a belief that nature’s resources are unbounded, and that the world’s ecosystems are simply too large to be significantly impacted by the mere actions of humans. In fact, however, environmental catastrophes (e.g., extended droughts) have occurred throughout human history, and have even caused the collapse of whole civilizations (e.g., Easter Island, Mayas, Sumerians, Nazca, Ancient Megafauna of Australia, Anasazi, and probably Minoans). Indeed, there are currently estimates that a quarter of the world’s population or a third of the population in developing countries live in areas suffering from severe water scarcity. Of particular concern is the declining water tables in the arid and semiarid regions of Asia, Middle East, and Mediterranean basin.

Based on the facts that the fresh water supplies on Earth will remain the same, they are unevenly distributed, and urbanization is increasing at high rates worldwide, the water availability (in m³/inh.), especially in urban areas, will become a critical issue in the future megacities. At the same time, it should be considered that transporting surface water over long distances from in-land to coastal areas, treating it, using it for potable purposes, and then retreating and discharging it to the sea is not a sustainable manner of water management. Similarly, the further overexploitation of groundwater has serious impacts on the environment (e.g., sea level rise). Finally, climate fluctuations may adversely affect water resources worldwide, through warming, shifts in precipitation patterns, and occurrence of extreme weather events (droughts, heat waves, floods). In such cases, the expansion of the reuse of marginal waters should be implemented—particularly in coastal urban areas for the production of water for all uses. Additionally, this practice complies with the circular economy concept and can help to cope with climate change and/or variability. However, the expansion of water reuse is not straightforward, as several public health and environmental issues still need to be addressed. Of particular importance are the issues arising from the spread of specific emerging and/or other pollutants, such as disinfection byproducts and pharmaceuticals, as well as antimicrobial resistance, which can harm environmental quality and threaten food safety. These factors are highly related to economic balance and public acceptability. It is apparent that we need advances in wastewater treatment and regulatory frameworks towards a more sophisticated and economically viable wastewater reuse management.

This Special Issue of Water entitled “Water Scarcity: From Ancient to Modern Times and the Future” aims to address all the above aspects by seeking relevant research and review manuscripts. More analytically, the scope of the SI could include:

The collapse of old civilizations: The role of drought;
Urbanization and water supply;
History of water science and technology;
Climate change and/variability and water quality and supply;
Water supply under water scarcity;
Irrigation and drainage under water scarcity;
Water use efficiency issues;
Water scarcity and land use, environmental and climate impacts;
Water scarcity and food production and economy impacts;
Water scarcity and energy;
Water scarcity and soil and water resources management;
Water reuse;
Use of marginal waters;
Water reuse planning, policy, monitoring requirements, and standards/criteria;
Water supply and wastewater treatment and reuse in future cities;
Water scarcity, water reuse, and circular economy;
Water and wastewater policies.

Dr. Vasileios Tzanakakis
Prof. Dr. Giovanni De Feo
Dr. Andreas N. Angelakis
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Water is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

water supply
water scarcity
water reuse
water policy
water management

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

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18 pages, 1795 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydraulic Approach into Olden Agricultural Aqueducts at the Mexican Region of Zacatecas

by Carlos Bautista-Capetillo, Georgia Aralú González Pérez, Hiram Badillo Almaraz and Aldo López Valle

Water 2022, 14(20), 3329; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14203329 - 21 Oct 2022

Viewed by 1806

Abstract

Civilizations have been able to bloom because of the way they have been historically associated with water resources, especially in seeking strategies to ensure a supply to diverse sectors that require them. Thus, challenges in satisfying water demand are shaped by the particular epoch and geographical area. In this sense, Roman engineering represents a new view of waterworks construction. Above all, it concerns building arched structures to convey water from supply sources to cities; even the hydraulic technology developed by Romans would transcend beyond the time this empire ruled the world. Consequently, this paper shows a brief outlook of some hydraulic systems in Asia, Europe and America settled thousands of years ago. Additionally, a historiographic approach is made for several aqueducts built within the limits that currently constitute the state of Zacatecas during colonial times and independent Mexico in order to evaluate their transcendence for mining, agriculture, and cattle. In addition to the allusion to historical context, the main goal has been to evaluate the hydraulic design of eight olden aqueducts based on current engineering approaches, with the purpose of typifying coincidences between constructive procedures inherited from Roman culture and those used by Spanish conquerors to erect similar civil works in this region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Scarcity: From Ancient to Modern Times and the Future)

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26 pages, 5851 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Smart Sharing Plan: The Key to the Water Crisis

by Qinyi Zhang, Mengchao Fan, Jing Hui, Haochong Huang, Zijian Li and Zhiyuan Zheng

Water 2022, 14(15), 2320; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14152320 - 26 Jul 2022

Viewed by 2000

Abstract

Over the years, the Colorado River has become inadequate for development due to natural factors and human activities. The hydroelectric facilities in Lake Mead and Lake Powell are also not fully utilized. Downstream, Mexico is also involved in the competition for water. The resulting allocation of water and electricity resources and sustainable development are hanging over our heads and waiting to be solved. In this work, a simplified Penstock Dam model and a Distance Decay model are designed based on publicly available data, and a Multi-attribute Decision model for hydropower based on the Novel Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to an Ideal Solution method is proposed. In addition, an Improved Particle Swarm Optimization model is proposed by adding oscillation parameters. The Mexican equity problem is also explored. The theoretical results show that the average error of the Penstock Dam model is 3.2%. The minimum water elevation requirements for Lake Mead and Lake Powell are 950 ft and 3460 ft, respectively; they will not meet demand in 2026 and 2027 without action, and they will require the introduction of

3.69 \times 10^{10} m^{3}

and

2.08 \times 10^{9} m^{3}

water in 2027 and 2028, respectively. The solution shows that the net profit for the United States is greatest when 38.6% of the additional water is used for general purposes, 47.5% is used for power generation, and the rest flows to Mexico. A final outlook on the sustainability of the Colorado River is provided. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Scarcity: From Ancient to Modern Times and the Future)

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21 pages, 770 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effective Management of Scarce Water Resources: From Antiquity to Today and into the Future

by Dominika Šulyová, Josef Vodák and Milan Kubina

Water 2021, 13(19), 2734; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13192734 - 02 Oct 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3009

Abstract

Water is a critically important element of human life. The best practice of effective water management comes from ancient civilizations that, despite their technologies and practices, were unable to prevent collapse from water scarcity. In the 21st century, in an era of climate change, pollution or population explosion, cities are looking for innovative ways to effectively manage scarce resources for future generations. Which elements should cities of the future follow to avoid water collapse? The following article aims to identify the key elements of effective management and to represent them graphically in the form of a recommended model, which will be verified in the future in Slovakia. The article uses case analysis of best past and current practices, comparison and summarization to identify the elements, creativity, and logic in the development of the model, including induction and deduction. The article serves as a basis for fellow researchers (analyses carried out) and strategic urban management (effective urban water management). The main finding of the article is that ecological change puts pressure on social elements and therefore it is necessary to focus on the area of strategic management. Cities should not only know how to manage resource abundance or short-term scarcity, but also long-term scarcity. They should use elements of trust, awareness and continuous improvement through modern monitoring technologies (UAVs, sensors) and prediction (machine learning). This is the only way to generate water sustainability in the urban concept of the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Scarcity: From Ancient to Modern Times and the Future)

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21 pages, 3433 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rise and Fall of the Grand Canal in the Ancient Kaifeng City of China: Role of the Grand Canal and Water Supply in Urban and Regional Development

by Wenji Huang, Mingwang Xi, Shibao Lu and Farhad Taghizadeh-Hesary

Water 2021, 13(14), 1932; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13141932 - 13 Jul 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 15404

Abstract

In the long history of the feudal society of China, Kaifeng played a vital role. During the Northern Song Dynasty, Kaifeng became a worldwide metropolis. The important reason was that the Grand Canal, which was excavated during the Sui Dynasty, became the main transportation artery for the political and military center of the north and the economic center of the south. Furthermore, Kaifeng was located at the center of the Grand Canal, which made it the capital of the later Northern Song Dynasty. The Northern Song Dynasty was called “the canal-centered era.” The development of the canal caused a series of major changes in the society of the Northern Song Dynasty that were different from the previous ones, which directly led to the transportation revolution, and in turn, promoted the commercial revolution and the urbanization of Kaifeng. The development of commerce contributed to the agricultural and money revolutions. After the Northern Song Dynasty, the political center moved to the south. During the Yuan Dynasty, the excavation of the Grand Canal made it so that water transport did not have to pass through the Central Plains. The relocation of the political center and the change in the canal route made Kaifeng lose the value of connecting the north and south, resulting in the long-time fall of the Bianhe River. Kaifeng, which had prospered for more than 100 years, declined gradually, and by the end of the Qing Dynasty, it became a common town in the Central Plains. In ancient China, the rise and fall of cities and regions were closely related to the canal, and the relationship between Kaifeng and the Grand Canal was typical. The history may provide some inspiration for the increasingly severe urban and regional sustainable development issues in contemporary times. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Scarcity: From Ancient to Modern Times and the Future)

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23 pages, 10943 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Roman Aqueducts in Crete, Greece: Learning from the Past

by Andreas N. Angelakis, Yannis Christodoulakos and Vasileios A. Tzanakakis

Water 2021, 13(8), 1069; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13081069 - 13 Apr 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5035

Abstract

The Romans were well aware of the strategic importance of Crete and tried, by any means possible, its final conquest. The island was under Roman rule over four centuries (ca 67 BC–330 AD). Under Roman rule, Crete witnessed a growth of its population and prosperity and an increase in its connectivity with other parts of the Empire. In addition, Gortys, Chersonisos, Elyros, Lyttos, Kissamos and other cities flourished under their rule. At that prosperous time, several luxurious infrastructures, such as hydraulic works, were developed. In this paper, we wish to examine the principles and the technical characteristics of major aqueducts built at that time. They constructed impressive hydro-works, such as aqueducts, by using the knowledge gained from earlier Greek civilizations in Minoan and Classical and Hellenistic times. However, they mainly increased the scale of applied technologies to support the increased population water demand. Water is a common need of humankind and several ancient civilizations developed simple but practical techniques, such as the aqueduct, especially during Roman times. We can gain from their experience and knowledge to develop a sustainable water supply, presently and in the future, both in developed and developing countries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Scarcity: From Ancient to Modern Times and the Future)

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Review

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27 pages, 5996 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Evolution of Water Technologies and Corresponding Philosophy and Sciences Focusing on the Hellenic World through the Millennia

by Andreas N. Angelakis, Jens Krasilnikoff and Vasileios A. Tzanakakis

Water 2022, 14(19), 3149; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14193149 - 06 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2906

Abstract

In this review, hydro-technological advancements in the Hellenic world throughout the millennia are considered in relation to the scientific developments and perceptions of the natural world articulated by Greek thinkers. Starting with the advanced hydro technologies of the Minoan civilization, this review presents the state-of-the-art evaluation of the hydro technologies in Greek historical contexts. More precisely, this review focus on how, when, and where modern hydro technologies developed based on ancient technological achievements, and subsequently when technological achievements were totally forgotten in specific periods, such as the Iron Age (ca 1200–800 BC), only to be reinvented or rediscovered in subsequent periods. In most cases, information has been collected from different sources and was cross-matched with each other. The results observed from the literature and material evidence are compiled and presented in the form of a critical review study. With a few examples, comparisons to hydrologic and hydraulic developments in other civilizations are considered and discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Scarcity: From Ancient to Modern Times and the Future)

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25 pages, 2406 KiB

Open AccessReview

What Do We Know about Water Scarcity in Semi-Arid Zones? A Global Analysis and Research Trends

by Fernando Morante-Carballo, Néstor Montalván-Burbano, Ximena Quiñonez-Barzola, María Jaya-Montalvo and Paúl Carrión-Mero

Water 2022, 14(17), 2685; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14172685 - 30 Aug 2022

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5692

Abstract

Water supply is strategic for the development of society. The water distribution in nature follows patterns linked to geographic and territorial issues. Climate fluctuations aggravate shortage problems in semi-arid regions. This study aims to develop a systematic review of research on water scarcity in semi-arid areas through bibliometric methods that allow the analysis of its structure, performance, evolution, and future trends. The methodology considers three phases: (i) literature review, (ii) data cleaning and processing, and (iii) analysis of the research field and future trends. The intellectual structure of water scarcity in semi-arid zones covers 2206 documents with the collaboration of sixty-one countries, distributed in studies carried out in 54 years (1967 to 2021). This field of research has been growing, especially since the 21st century (93.1% of the documents). The countries that study the issue the most are those with high population rates and large consumption patterns, such as the United States and China. There are two central areas of interest led by the terms "water scarcity" and "water stress" due to the intensive use of the resource for agriculture and the management of the water–energy–climate nexus. Thus, the most significant journals studied relate remote sensing to resource management, and the most cited are related to agriculture. This research made it possible to consider future topics such as the study of anthropogenic effects and climate change, the accuracy and applicability of models, and future trends in conventional and unconventional agriculture and resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Scarcity: From Ancient to Modern Times and the Future)

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22 pages, 3575 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Water Quality Focusing on the Hellenic World: From Ancient to Modern Times and the Future

by Andreas N. Angelakis, Nicholas Dercas and Vasileios A. Tzanakakis

Water 2022, 14(12), 1887; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14121887 - 11 Jun 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3384

Abstract

Water quality is a fundamental issue for the survival of a city, especially on dry land. In ancient times, water availability determined the location and size of villages and cities. Water supply and treatment methods were developed and perfected along with the evolution of urbanization. In Europe, after the fall of the Roman Empire, water supply and sewage systems went through fundamental changes. However, in medieval times, the lack of proper sanitation and low water quality increased the spreading and effects of epidemics. The importance of potable water quality was established during modern times. In Greece, the significance of water filtration and disinfection was not understood until the beginning of the 20th century. Moreover, the beneficial effects of water quality and sanitation on human health and especially on life expectancy are considered. In Greece and other countries, a dramatic increase in life expectancy mainly after the 2nd World War is probably due to the improvement of potable water quality and hygiene conditions. However, since the mid-20th century, new water quality issues have emerged, such as eutrophication, the improvement of water treatment technologies, as well as chemical and microbiological water pollution problems. This study, in addition to the historical evolution of water quality, highlights and discusses the current issues and challenges with regard to the management and protection of water quality, including global changes in population and urbanization, lack of infrastructure, use of nonconventional water resources, spreading of emerging pollutants and contaminants (e.g., antibiotics and microplastics), and climatic variability impacts. Against these, a review of the main proposed strategies and measures is presented and discussed to protect water quality and maintain water supplies for the future. Understanding the practices and solutions of the past provides a lens with which to view the present and future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Scarcity: From Ancient to Modern Times and the Future)

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27 pages, 10369 KiB

Open AccessReview

Sustainable and Regenerative Development of Water Mills as an Example of Agricultural Technologies for Small Farms

by Andreas N. Angelakis, Mohammad Valipour, Jörg Dietrich, Konstantinos Voudouris, Rohitashw Kumar, Miquel Salgot, Seyed Ali Mahmoudian, Anatoli Rontogianni and Theocharis Tsoutsos

Water 2022, 14(10), 1621; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14101621 - 18 May 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 8826

Abstract

Nowadays, the reuse of built agricultural/industrial heritage has been a common practice worldwide. These structures represent excellent symbols of the great agricultural/industrial past. These agricultural/hydro-technologies also serve as monuments of socio-cultural identities, especially in rural areas and on small farms. One example of a successful application of agricultural technologies for small farms is the water mill. By harnessing the water energy, they were used for traditional flour and other goods production (e.g., olive oil) and works requiring energy, with the main role in the evolution of the traditional/cultural landscape. Water mills have been used to drive a mechanical process of milling, hammering, and rolling and are a portion of the agricultural, cultural, and industrial heritage. For approximately two millennia, the vertical mill water wheel prepared the initial source of mechanical power in many regions of the world. Water mills were the first device that converted natural resources of energy into mechanical energy in order to operate some form of machinery. The preservation/management of water mills is challenging due to their long-term abandonment and the lack of information/knowledge about their value. The other obstacles that are faced in their retrofitting and/or preservation are the lack of sufficient economic incentives and complex authorizations/legislations. Sustainability and regeneration of water mills through the centuries are then reviewed for history and agricultural/industrial “archaeology”. The history of water-powered mills in prehistoric and historic times, including ancient Persia/Iran, ancient China, ancient India, the Islamic world, Venetian Crete, medieval Europe, America, and finally present times, is discussed. The outcome of this review allows the understanding of the importance of conservation, optimization, and development of water mills. It will help to know more and achieve sustainable/regenerative development for small farms with respect to water and energy crises at present and in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Scarcity: From Ancient to Modern Times and the Future)

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14 pages, 1690 KiB

Open AccessReview

Polar Ice as an Unconventional Water Resource: Opportunities and Challenges

by Zahra Karimidastenaei, Björn Klöve, Mojtaba Sadegh and Ali Torabi Haghighi

Water 2021, 13(22), 3220; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223220 - 13 Nov 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4223

Abstract

Global water resources are under pressure due to increasing population and diminishing conventional water resources caused by global warming. Water scarcity is a daunting global problem which has prompted efforts to find unconventional resources as an appealing substitute for conventional water, particularly in arid and semiarid regions. Ice is one such unconventional water resource, which is available mainly in the Arctic and Antarctic. In this study, opportunities and challenges in iceberg utilization as a source of freshwater were investigated on the basis of a systematic literature review (SLR). A search in three databases (Scopus, Web of Science, and ProQuest) yielded 47 separate studies from 1974 to 2019. The SLR indicated that harvesting iceberg water, one of the purest sources of water, offers benefits ranging from supplying freshwater and creating new jobs to avoiding iceberg damage to offshore structures. Economic considerations and risks associated with iceberg towing were identified as the main limitations to iceberg harvesting, while environmental impacts were identified as the main challenge to exploiting this resource. Assessment of trends in ice sheets in Arctic and Antarctic across different spatiotemporal scales indicated that the main sources of icebergs showed a statistically significant (p < 0.01) decreasing trend for all months and seasons during 2005–2019. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Scarcity: From Ancient to Modern Times and the Future)

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21 pages, 12198 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Hydro-Technologies of Mehrgarh, Baluchistan and Indus Valley Civilizations, Punjab, Pakistan (ca. 7000–1500 BC)

by Saifullah Khan, Nese Yilmaz, Mohammad Valipour and Andreas N. Angelakis

Water 2021, 13(20), 2813; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13202813 - 10 Oct 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 8367

Abstract

Weather and climate have been participating in an imperative function in both the expansion and crumple of mankind civilizations diagonally across the globe ever since the prehistoric eras. The Neolithic Mehrgarh (ca. 7000–2500 BC) and Balochistan and Indus Valley civilizations (ca. 2500–1500 BC), in Sindh Province in Pakistan, have been the spotlight of explorations to historians, anthropologists, and archeologists in terms of their origin, development, and collapse. However, very rare consideration has been given previously to the role of weather and climate, sanitation, and wastewater technologies in highlighting the lessons of these formerly well-developed ancient metropolitan civilizations. This study presents an existing climate of the archaeological sites, sanitation, and wastewater technologies to recognize the different elements that influenced the evolution of the civilization mystery. In addition, it is recommended that the weather and climate conditions in southwest Asia were the foremost controlling element in resolving the destiny of the Indus and Mehrgarh civilizations. Furthermore, the rural tradition was mostly adapted by the increasing rate of western depressions (winter rains), as well as monsoon precipitation in the region. The factors that affected the climate of both civilizations with the passage of time might be population growth, resource conflicts, technological advancement, industrial revolution, Aryan invasion, deforestation, migration, disasters, and sociocultural advancement. The communities residing in both civilizations had well developed agriculture, sanitation, water management, wells, baths, toilets, dockyards, and waterlogging systems and were the master of the water art. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Scarcity: From Ancient to Modern Times and the Future)

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26 pages, 3421 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Desalination: From Ancient to Present and Future

by Andreas N. Angelakis, Mohammad Valipour, Kwang-Ho Choo, Abdelkader T. Ahmed, Alper Baba, Rohitashw Kumar, Gurpal S. Toor and Zhiwei Wang

Water 2021, 13(16), 2222; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13162222 - 16 Aug 2021

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 14131

Abstract

Water is life, and without water, there would be no civilizations and a vacant Earth. Water is considered an abundant natural resource on the earth. Water covers 3/4 of the surface. However, 97% of the available water on the earth is salty oceanic water, and only a tiny fraction (3%) is freshwater. This small portion of the available water supplies the needs of humans and animals. However, freshwater exists in underground, rivers, and lakes and is insufficient to cover all the world’s water demands. Thus, water saving, water reuse, rainwater harvesting, stormwater utilization, and desalination are critical for maintaining water supplies for the future of humanity. Desalination has a long history spanning centuries from ancient times to the present. In the last two decades, desalination has been rapidly expanding to meet water needs in stressed water regions of the world. Yet, there are still some problems with its implementation in several areas of the world. This review provides a comprehensive assessment of the history of desalination for wiser and smarter water extraction and uses to sustain and support the water needs of the earth’s inhabitants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Scarcity: From Ancient to Modern Times and the Future)

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15 pages, 1925 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Water Quality and Life Expectancy: Parallel Courses in Time

by Andreas N. Angelakis, Heikki S. Vuorinen, Christos Nikolaidis, Petri S. Juuti, Tapio S. Katko, Riikka P. Juuti, Jim Zhang and George Samonis

Water 2021, 13(6), 752; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13060752 - 10 Mar 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 12348

Abstract

Since ancient times, the need for healthy water has resulted in the development of various kinds of water supply systems. From early history, civilizations have developed water purification devices and treatment methods. The necessity for fresh water has influenced individual lives as well as communities and societies. During the last two hundred years, intensive and effective efforts have been made internationally for sufficient water quantity and quality. At the same time, human life expectancy has increased all over the globe at unprecedented rates. The present work represents an effort to sketch out how water purity and life expectancy have entangled, thus influencing one another. Water properties and characteristics have directly affected life quality and longevity. The dramatic increase in life expectancy has been, indisputably, affected by the improvement in water quality, but also in other concomitant factors, varying temporally and spatially in different parts of the world throughout the centuries. Water technologies and engineering have an unequivocal role on life expectancy. In some cases, they appear to have taken place earlier than the progress of modern medicine. Among these, improved sanitation, personal hygiene, progress in medicine, and better standards of economic living have played the greatest roles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Scarcity: From Ancient to Modern Times and the Future)

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