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Spatial Variation of Asymmetry in Velocity and Sediment Flux Along the Artificial Aam Tidal Channel
The Relationship Between Ribosomal RNA Operon Copy Number and Ecological Characteristics of AS Microbial Communities Across China
Machine Learning to Monitor Peach Orchard Physiology in Mediterranean Area
A Practical, Adaptive, and Scalable Real-Time Control Approach for Stormwater Storage Systems
Evaluation of Future Changes in Climate Extremes over Southeast Asia Using Downscaled CMIP6 GCM Projections

Journal Description

Water

Water is a peer-reviewed, open access journal on water science and technology, including the ecology and management of water resources, and is published semimonthly online by MDPI. Water collaborates with the Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI). In addition, the American Institute of Hydrology (AIH), The Polish Limnological Society (PLS) and Japanese Society of Physical Hydrology (JSPH) are affiliated with Water and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, GEOBASE, GeoRef, PubAg, AGRIS, CAPlus / SciFinder, Inspec, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Water Resources) / CiteScore - Q1 (Water Science and Technology)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 16.5 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2024).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Companion journals for Water include: GeoHazards.

Impact Factor: 3.0 (2023); 5-Year Impact Factor: 3.3 (2023)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2073-4441

Latest Articles

28 pages, 6312 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reclamation and Improvement of Saline Soils Using Organo–Mineral–Natural Resources, Treated Saline Water, and Drip Irrigation Technology

by Nahla A. Hemdan, Soad M. El-Ashry, Sameh Kotb Abd-Elmabod, Zhenhua Zhang, Hani A. Mansour and Magdy Attia

Water 2024, 16(22), 3234; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223234 (registering DOI) - 10 Nov 2024

Reclamation and management of saline soil in arid regions fundamentally require more consideration to attain sustainable agriculture. Experiments were conducted at Abo-Kalam Farm, South Sinai, Egypt. Split-split-plot design experiments were carried out to study the effect of treatments on saline soil hydrophysical properties, [...] Read more.

Reclamation and management of saline soil in arid regions fundamentally require more consideration to attain sustainable agriculture. Experiments were conducted at Abo-Kalam Farm, South Sinai, Egypt. Split-split-plot design experiments were carried out to study the effect of treatments on saline soil hydrophysical properties, sorghum, and cv. ‘Dorado’ plants during the summer season. Pea cv. ‘Entsar 3’ plants were cultivated during the winter season for the residual effect of treatments. Organo–mineral amendment (rice straw compost + mineral sulfur at different rates) was assigned as the main factor, natural rock or artificial fertilizers were assigned as subfactors, and humic acid at different rates was the sub-subfactor. Results showed that organo–mineral amendments improved the hydrophysical properties of the soil, plant nutrient uptake, crop yield, and crop water productivity; however, it diminished by 10 tons/fed (4200 m²) of compost plus 700 kg/fed of mineral sulfur. Therefore, it is recommended that economically using the combination of applying organic–mineral amendments of 4 tons/fed of compost plus 400 kg/fed of mineral sulfur and 5 kg/fed of humic acid plus natural rock fertilizer is the best safe management for reclamation and improvement of saline soils using partially treated saline irrigation water and natural resources. Full article

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16 pages, 7560 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Zirconium-Modified Attapulgite Composite for Phosphorus Removal and Algae Control in Lake Water

by Chun-Yan Lin, Wenliang Wu and Wenya Shao

Water 2024, 16(22), 3233; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223233 (registering DOI) - 10 Nov 2024

Phosphorus removal is critical for effective water treatment and the prevention of eutrophication. This study focuses on the modification of attapulgite, an economical clay material, with zirconium (Zr@ATP) to enhance its phosphorus adsorption capacity. Zr@ATP was comprehensively characterized, and its phosphorus-removal mechanisms were [...] Read more.

Phosphorus removal is critical for effective water treatment and the prevention of eutrophication. This study focuses on the modification of attapulgite, an economical clay material, with zirconium (Zr@ATP) to enhance its phosphorus adsorption capacity. Zr@ATP was comprehensively characterized, and its phosphorus-removal mechanisms were investigated. Additionally, its performance in water treatment was evaluated using a lake water-sediment system. Zr@ATP exhibited a high surface area of 329.29 m²/g. The static adsorption experiments revealed that Zr@ATP achieved a phosphorus-removal efficiency of 95.8% at an adsorbent dosage of 5 g/L. Kinetic studies indicated that the adsorption followed a pseudo-second-order model, with the primary mechanism being chemisorption via ion exchange. Application of Zr@ATP in a lake water-sediment system resulted in an 83.6% reduction in total phosphorus. The chlorophyll concentration significantly decreased from 32.33 μg/L to 8.56 μg/L, and the algal density decreased by 84.6%, effectively inhibiting algal growth. These results suggest that Zr@ATP is a promising adsorbent for sustainable phosphorus removal and eutrophication control in aquatic environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Urban Water Management)

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16 pages, 1498 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Current Situation and Sustainable Development Measures for Urban–Rural Water Supply Integration in Yunnan Province, China

by Zifei Ma, Wengang Li, Yang Li, Jing Li and Jing Wang

Water 2024, 16(22), 3232; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223232 (registering DOI) - 10 Nov 2024

Urban–Rural Water supply integration is one of the effective ways to address rural drinking water safety issues. With the rapid economic development and urbanization, the gap between urban and rural water supply has become increasingly evident, and rural areas face severe challenges such [...] Read more.

Urban–Rural Water supply integration is one of the effective ways to address rural drinking water safety issues. With the rapid economic development and urbanization, the gap between urban and rural water supply has become increasingly evident, and rural areas face severe challenges such as insufficient water sources and substandard water quality. Yunnan Province, due to its unique topography and natural environment, encounters numerous difficulties in promoting the construction and development of urban–rural water supply integration, and there is a severe lack of research specifically focused on sustainable development measures for urban–rural water supply integration in Yunnan Province. In light of this, this paper first reviews the current research status on urban–rural water supply integration both domestically and internationally, pointing out that existing studies mainly focus on optimizing urban water supply systems, addressing rural drinking water safety issues, and exploring water supply management models. It then analyzes the challenges faced by Yunnan Province in advancing urban–rural water supply integration, including limitations in engineering construction, inadequate operation and maintenance, complex and variable water source conditions, and insufficient public awareness of water conservation. In response to these issues, a series of sustainable development measures are proposed, including revitalizing existing assets, enhancing construction planning and quality, promoting water pricing reforms, upgrading the technical system for drinking water safety assurance, and advancing the information technology construction of urban–rural water supply integration, with the aim of providing references and insights for the sustainable development of urban–rural water supply integration in Yunnan Province and other regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Methods and Tools for Sustainable Agricultural Water Management)

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19 pages, 4684 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Health Risk Assessment of Trace Elements in Surface Water from Dayat Roumi Lake, Morocco

by Ihsane Ougrad, Zahra Elassassi, Abdessamad Mrabet, Ibrahim Mssillou, Adrian Lim, Abdelaaty Abdelaziz Shahat, Sanae Rezouki and Tarik Moubchir

Water 2024, 16(22), 3231; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223231 (registering DOI) - 10 Nov 2024

To assess the human impact on the water of Dayat Roumi Lake and to develop effective management strategies to protect and restore this vital ecosystem in the region, seasonal sampling was carried out at six stations distributed around the lake. During these sampling [...] Read more.

To assess the human impact on the water of Dayat Roumi Lake and to develop effective management strategies to protect and restore this vital ecosystem in the region, seasonal sampling was carried out at six stations distributed around the lake. During these sampling campaigns, 24 parameters were measured, including 20 trace elements. Results showed that measured levels of trace elements increased in the following order: Cd < Be < Tl < Co < Sb < Mo < Cu < Zn < Ni < V < Rb < Mn < As < Cr < Pb < Li < Ba < Se < Pd < Sr in the lake water and that these recorded values were lower than those recommended by the Moroccan standard and the World Health Organization, except for Pb and Se. Correlation analysis revealed two principal water-contamination sources: natural geological origins and anthropogenic inputs. In addition, the Water Quality Index WQI showed that the lake’s water quality is poor, and its use can be dangerous for human and animal health. Health risk assessment associated with prolonged exposure to trace elements in lake water revealed that the Hazard quotient HQ and Hazard index HI of certain elements, such as Tl, Sb, V, As, Cr, Pb, Li, and Se, are higher than 1 in adult and children, indicating a significant risk for people living near the lake. Children are particularly vulnerable, with higher levels of HQ and HI, and selenium poses a substantial risk to their health through ingestion and skin absorption. In both adults and children, the total risk of cancer due to metals is classified as follows: CI (Cr) > CI (Ni) > CI (As) > CI (Pb) > CI (Cd). The Cr presents the highest carcinogenic risk—by ingestion or dermal route—in both groups. The total risk for these five metals exceeds 1 × 10⁻⁴, indicating a danger for residents who drink or swim in the lake. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality Assessment of River Basins)

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17 pages, 1619 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Tide Dikes on the Distribution and Accumulation Risk of Trace Metals in the Coastal Wetlands of Laizhou Bay, China

by Yuanfen Xia, Xiaofeng Ling, Yan Fang, Zhen Xu, Jiayuan Liu and Fude Liu

Water 2024, 16(22), 3230; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223230 (registering DOI) - 10 Nov 2024

Tide dikes play a key role in preventing seawater intrusion in coastal regions; however, their effects on trace metal distribution and accumulation remain unclear. This study explored the distribution and enrichment of trace metals (As, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn) inside and [...] Read more.

Tide dikes play a key role in preventing seawater intrusion in coastal regions; however, their effects on trace metal distribution and accumulation remain unclear. This study explored the distribution and enrichment of trace metals (As, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn) inside and outside tide dikes in Laizhou Bay. The accumulative risk of these metals in the two habitats was analyzed by combining their sources. The results show that the average enrichment factor, geological accumulation index, and potential ecological risk index of As in the outside habitat are significantly higher than those in the inside habitat (p < 0.001), which indicates that the tide dike effectively reduces the migration of As from outside to inside habitats. For other trace metals, no statistical differences were found between the two habitats. Based on principal component analysis and redundancy analysis of trace metals and their correlations with soil physicochemical properties, we speculated that Cr and Zn may derive from soil parent material and rock weathering. Cu, Pb, and Ni may be related to atmospheric nitrogen deposition resulting from nearby agricultural activities, and As may come from industrial wastewater or transport through seagoing rivers. The findings suggest that tide dikes effectively block exogenous trace metals but not those from natural sources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Pollution Control and Ecological Restoration)

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16 pages, 3449 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Application of Reservoir Operation Method Based on Pre-Release Index for Control of Exceedance Floods

by Cao Huang, Weiqi Li, Sizhong He and Yixin Yang

Water 2024, 16(22), 3229; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223229 (registering DOI) - 10 Nov 2024

The pre-release operation has the potential to enhance the ability of a reservoir to manage exceedance floods. However, the mechanisms for the initiation and termination of such operations are unclear, and a clear method for calculating the pre-release water amount at each time [...] Read more.

The pre-release operation has the potential to enhance the ability of a reservoir to manage exceedance floods. However, the mechanisms for the initiation and termination of such operations are unclear, and a clear method for calculating the pre-release water amount at each time step of the scheduling phase is lacking. To address this, the framework and mathematical expression for a pre-release index are proposed herein, and a refined pre-release scheduling model is developed based on the pre-release indices and their thresholds. Then, the proposed pre-release operation model is applied to the Shuifumiao Reservoir in the Lianshui River Basin in Hunan Province, China. The simulation results demonstrate that the refined pre-release scheduling model can effectively prevent exceedance floods, ensuring the safety of flood control without compromising the effectiveness of water supply safety. The proposed model provides a valuable framework and tool for enhancing the ability of reservoir operators to manage flood events and improve overall flood control safety. Full article

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15 pages, 4336 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measuring Microplastic Concentrations in Water by Electrical Impedance Spectroscopy

by Diogo Gomes, Solange Magalhães, Maria Graça Rasteiro and Pedro Faia

Water 2024, 16(22), 3228; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223228 (registering DOI) - 10 Nov 2024

Plastics are vital for society, but their usage has grown exponentially and contributes to the growth of pollution worldwide. The World Health Organization, WHO, already reported that microplastics (MPs) are found everywhere, in waste and fresh water, and in the air and soil. [...] Read more.

Plastics are vital for society, but their usage has grown exponentially and contributes to the growth of pollution worldwide. The World Health Organization, WHO, already reported that microplastics (MPs) are found everywhere, in waste and fresh water, and in the air and soil. Regarding water effluents, waste-water treatment plants only minimize the problem, trapping only larger size particles. In contrast, smaller ones remain in oxidation ponds or sewage sludges, or are even released to aquifers environment. Classic procedures for MPs detection are still quite laborious, and are usually conducted off-line, involving several steps and expensive equipment. Electrical Impedance Spectroscopy, EIS, is a technique that allows the analysis of a system’s electrical response, yielding helpful information about its domain-dependent on physical-chemical properties. Due to the superficial electronegativity of MPs’ particles, EIS may allow to attain the purpose of the present work: to provide a fast and reliable method to detect/estimate MPs’ concentration in water effluents. Among the most common microplastics are Polyethylene, PE, and Polyvinyl Chloride, PVC. Using the developed setup and experimental data collection methodology, the authors could differentiate between MPs’ suspensions containing the same concentration of the different evaluated MPs, PVC and PE, and assess PVC concentration variation, in the interval between 0.03 to 0.5 g (w/w), with an error, estimated based on the obtained impedance modulus, around or below 3% for the entire stimulus signal frequency range (from 100 Hz to 40 MHz) for the PVC particles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Remediation and Quality Assessment Using Electrochemical Technologies)

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20 pages, 5827 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mountain Hydrology Based on the Water Balance of the Tropical Basin of the Topo River (Tungurahua–Ecuador)

by Erick García-Andrade, Diego E. Mora, Daniel E. Mendoza and Sebastián Páez-Bimos

Water 2024, 16(22), 3227; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223227 (registering DOI) - 9 Nov 2024

The Topo River basin, located in the tropical region of Ecuador, is considered a little-known and well-preserved basin, with limited access conditions and scarce data that hinder its hydrological understanding. However, this gap can be addressed through this study, which evaluates morphometric and [...] Read more.

The Topo River basin, located in the tropical region of Ecuador, is considered a little-known and well-preserved basin, with limited access conditions and scarce data that hinder its hydrological understanding. However, this gap can be addressed through this study, which evaluates morphometric and hydrometeorological factors, relating them to water storage in the Topo River basin and comparing these results with other watersheds. The aim is to identify the morphometric and hydrometeorological factors that control the variability in water storage. Firstly, a morphometric characterization was conducted. Then, a hydrometeorological characterization was carried out based on climatic data from a single station with less than two years of data, along with the calculation of the water balance. Finally, water storage in the Topo basin was compared with the main morphometric and hydrometeorological characteristics of other basins. The results showed that the Topo River basin stores 9.1 mm annually (0.20% of its precipitation), and this storage is the result of its high runoff coefficient. It was concluded that basins with lower precipitation, higher evapotranspiration ranges, larger areas, gentler slopes, smaller altitude ranges, longer rivers, and basins that are narrow and oval-shaped may have higher water storage capacity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extreme Hydrological Processes and Impacts in Mountainous Regions)

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15 pages, 1498 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Decade-Long Comparison of Heavy Metal(loid)s in the River and Children’s Health Risk Assessment of an E-Waste Recycling Area

by Hongfei Hu, Xiang Zeng, Chenxu Dai, Bo Xie, Jian Zhang, Xijin Xu and Xia Huo

Water 2024, 16(22), 3226; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223226 (registering DOI) - 9 Nov 2024

Informal e-waste recycling can cause serious heavy metal(loid) pollution to nearby bodies of water, thereby increasing the risk of heavy metal exposure to local residents. This study investigates metal(loid) pollution levels in the Lianjiang River, which flows through Guiyu, an e-waste recycling town [...] Read more.

Informal e-waste recycling can cause serious heavy metal(loid) pollution to nearby bodies of water, thereby increasing the risk of heavy metal exposure to local residents. This study investigates metal(loid) pollution levels in the Lianjiang River, which flows through Guiyu, an e-waste recycling town in Shantou, Guangdong. In 2009 and 2020, water samples from the Lianjiang River were taken, and the levels of 12 metal(loid)s (V, Cr, Mn, Sr, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Cd, Ba, and Pb) were measured by ICP-MS. In total, 380 valid questionnaires from Guiyu kindergarten children were selected to assess child health. Exposure health risks for children were calculated using two forms of exposure (dermal and inhalation) and statistical methods (multiple linear regression and Bayesian kernel machine regression—BKMR). The concentrations of Mn, Ni, Pb, and Cd in 2009 were significantly higher than those in 2020. The concentration of heavy metal(loid)s had been decreasing in 2020. The non-carcinogenic risk levels of the 12 metal(loid)s in both exposure routes were at an acceptable risk level. The average carcinogenic risk levels for As, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Cd exceeded the ILCRi <10–6 acceptable range. According to MLR, it was found that daily oral intake doses of Pb [β(95% CI): −0.949 (−1.596, −0.863), p < 0.001 and Se [β(95% CI): −0.911 (−1.888, −0.092), p = 0.031] were negatively associated with body mass index. A BKMR model was developed, through which the synergistic effects of co-exposure to 12 heavy metal(loid)s on growth and development indicators in children were analyzed. Concentrations of heavy metal(loid)s in rivers near e-waste recycling sites have been decreasing for 10 years. It was found that the growth and development of children are affected by the intake of heavy metal(loid)s in water. The reduction in heavy metal(loid) contamination in e-waste recycling areas needs to be continued, and concern about its impact on children’s health must remain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Critical Issues in Groundwater Pollution Monitoring and Risk Warning)

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29 pages, 1621 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating the Quality-of-Life and Happiness Indices of Hydropower Project-Affected People in Pakistan: Towards a Sustainable Future

by Maria Qayum, Weisong Li and Muhammad Tayyab Sohail

Water 2024, 16(22), 3225; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223225 (registering DOI) - 9 Nov 2024

Worldwide, the development of massive hydropower projects is becoming more common, especially when it comes to attempts to mitigate environmental degradation and increase a nation’s energy capacity. People affected by projects (PAPs) are forced to relocate in order to support large-scale development initiatives, [...] Read more.

Worldwide, the development of massive hydropower projects is becoming more common, especially when it comes to attempts to mitigate environmental degradation and increase a nation’s energy capacity. People affected by projects (PAPs) are forced to relocate in order to support large-scale development initiatives, which puts their lives and livelihoods at jeopardy. In comparison to the value of infrastructure development, which is mostly reaped by distant stakeholders, it comes at a high cost. In relation to CSR/resettlement and rehabilitation programs carried out by construction corporations in Pakistan’s hydropower development, this study on the quality-of-life (QoL) and happiness indicators of PAPs is being conducted. The analysis of factors affecting happiness and other aspects of quality-of-life indicators, including job and livelihood opportunities, housing, health, infrastructure, social interactions, environmental sustainability, inclusion, equity, and diversity, is the goal of this study. Using a questionnaire survey approach, data were directly gathered from PAPs, and about 424 replies were obtained to help with the model’s development. Structural equation modelling has been applied in conjunction with multivariate statistical analysis to analyse data. The outcome demonstrates the essential connections between the concepts that were taught in light of human, social, environmental, physical, and economic problems. The results also show that project supporters’ relocation and rehabilitation efforts fell short of what was needed to improve the quality of people’s lives. As a result, a conceptual framework specifically tailored to the hydropower construction region has been created and verified to provide PAPs with a high-quality living environment. Full article

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17 pages, 1738 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of the Construction of a Tillage Layer on the Infiltration of Snowmelt Water into Freeze–Thaw Soil in Cold Regions

by Ziqiao Zhou, Sisi Liu, Bingyu Zhu, Rui Wang, Chao Liu and Renjie Hou

Water 2024, 16(22), 3224; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223224 (registering DOI) - 9 Nov 2024

The snow melting and runoff process in the black soil area of Northeast China has led to soil quality degradation in farmland, posing a threat to sustainable agricultural development. To investigate the regulatory effect of tillage layer construction on the infiltration characteristics of [...] Read more.

The snow melting and runoff process in the black soil area of Northeast China has led to soil quality degradation in farmland, posing a threat to sustainable agricultural development. To investigate the regulatory effect of tillage layer construction on the infiltration characteristics of snowmelt water, a typical black soil in Northeast China was selected as the research object. Based on field experiments, four protective tillage treatments (CK: control treatment; SB: sub-soiling treatment; BC: biochar regulation treatment; SB + BC: sub-soiling tillage and biochar composite treatment) were set up, and the evolution of soil physical structure, soil thawing rate, snow melting infiltration characteristics, and the feedback effect of frozen layer evolution on snowmelt infiltration were analyzed. The research results indicate that sub-soiling and the application of biochar effectively regulate soil aggregate particle size and increase soil total porosity. Among them, at the 0–10 cm soil layer, the soil mean weight diameter (MWD) values under SB, BC, and SB + BC treatment conditions increased by 6.25%, 16.67%, and 19.35%, respectively, compared to the CK treatment. Sub-soiling increases the frequency of energy exchange between the soil and the environment, while biochar enhances soil heat storage performance and accelerates the melting rate of frozen soil layers. Therefore, under the SB + BC treatment conditions, the maximum soil freezing rate increased by 21.92%, 5.67%, and 25.12% compared to the CK, SB, and BC treatments, respectively. In addition, sub-soiling and biochar treatment effectively improved the penetration performance of snowmelt water into frozen soil layers, significantly enhancing the soil’s ability to store snowmelt water. Overall, it can be concluded that biochar regulation has a good improvement effect on the infiltration capacity of surface soil snowmelt water. Sub-soiling can enhance the overall snowmelt water holding capacity, and the synergistic effect of biochar and deep tillage is the best. These research results have important guiding significance for the rational construction of a protective tillage system model and the improvement of the utilization efficiency of snowmelt water resources in black soil areas. Full article

14 pages, 3081 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Regulatory Threshold of Soil and Water Conservation Measures on Runoff and Sediment Processes in the Sanchuan River Basin

by Xinhui Ding, Xiaoying Liu and Guangquan Liu

Water 2024, 16(22), 3223; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223223 (registering DOI) - 9 Nov 2024

Research on the runoff and sediment reduction effects of soil and water conservation measures has always been a topic of interest, which is of great significance for carrying out sustainable strategies for soil and water conservation in the Yellow River Basin. This study [...] Read more.

Research on the runoff and sediment reduction effects of soil and water conservation measures has always been a topic of interest, which is of great significance for carrying out sustainable strategies for soil and water conservation in the Yellow River Basin. This study aims to find the threshold years of soil and water conservation measures for reductions in runoff and sediment. Through the analysis of various soil and water conservation measures, runoff, sediment, and rainfall data in the Sanchuan River Basin from 1960 to 2019, we determined the threshold years of soil and water conservation measures on runoff and sediment processes using the Hydrology and Lagrange Multiplier method. The results are as follows: The trend in flood season rainfall and annual rainfall in the Sanchuan River Basin is consistent. The 1990s was a turning period in the annual rainfall and flood season rainfall of the Sanchuan River Basin. The 2000s was a turning period of the runoff in the Sanchuan River Basin, while the sediment entered a stable period after 2000. The best periods for reducing runoff and sediment were the initial treatment period (1967–1979) and the centralized treatment period (1980–1996). The runoff and sediment reduction effects of each soil and water conservation measure during the initial treatment period (1967–1979) were terrace (32.8%) > dam (30.1%) > grass (18.6%) > forest (18.5%), while their effects during the centralized treatment period (1980–1996) were grass (53.7%) > terrace (20.7%) > dam (14.6%) > forest (11.0%). The runoff and sediment reduction effects of various soil and water conservation measures during different treatment periods indicate that the runoff reduction effect reached its peak in 2003–2005, while the sediment reduction benefit reached its peak in 2013–2015. Based on the comprehensive benefits of runoff and sediment regulation, 2013–2015 are considered to be the threshold years for various soil and water conservation measures, with the measures covering respective average areas of 4.85 × 10⁴, 17.80 × 10⁴, 1.15 × 10⁴, and 0.82 × 10⁴ hm². These research results will have a certain significance for the reasonable allocation of soil and water conservation measures and sustainable development in the Yellow River Basin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Soil and Water Conservation and Vegetation Restoration)

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15 pages, 505 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Environmental Factors and Epiphytic Bacteria on Arsenic Accumulation and Biotransformation in Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle

by Yuan Zhao, Zhuo Zhen and Changzhou Yan

Water 2024, 16(22), 3222; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223222 (registering DOI) - 9 Nov 2024

Submerged aquatic plants have potential applications in the phytoremediation of aquatic environments contaminated with arsenic (As). However, the role of epiphytic bacteria that grow on the surface of plants in As uptake and metabolism in plants has often been overlooked. An orthogonal experimental [...] Read more.

Submerged aquatic plants have potential applications in the phytoremediation of aquatic environments contaminated with arsenic (As). However, the role of epiphytic bacteria that grow on the surface of plants in As uptake and metabolism in plants has often been overlooked. An orthogonal experimental design with nine treatments, four factors, and three levels was conducted to inspect the effects of nitrogen (N, KNO₃, 2, 4, 10 mg/L), phosphorus (P, NaH₂PO₄·2H₂O, 0.02, 0.2, 1 mg/L), pH (6, 7, 9), and arsenate (As(V), Na₃AsO₄·12H₂O, 15, 75, 375 μg/L) on As accumulation and biotransformation in sterilized plants and to further explore the role of epiphytic bacteria in the metabolism of As by Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle. The results indicate that low N, intermediate P, and intermediate pH were beneficial for As accumulation (117.2 ± 62.2 μg/g DW) in sterilized plants, and epiphytic bacteria exhibited promotion (68%) in plants. High N promoted As absorption and transformation in non-sterilized plants but reduced As absorption in sterilized plants. Epiphytic bacteria in the medium showed significant As(III) oxidation, which was affected by environmental factors. These findings can promote remediation efficiency by regulating environmental factors for the phytoremediation of As-contaminated waters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biodiversity and Functionality of Aquatic Ecosystems)

17 pages, 3338 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Examining the Barriers to Redesigning Smallholder Production Practices for Water-Use Efficiency in Numbi, Mbombela Local Municipality, South Africa

by Mishal Trevor Morepje, Isaac Azikiwe Agholor, Moses Zakhele Sithole, Nomzamo Sharon Msweli, Variety Nkateko Thabane and Lethu Inneth Mgwenya

Water 2024, 16(22), 3221; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223221 (registering DOI) - 9 Nov 2024

Smallholder farmers in South Africa face issues related to water shortages and poor irrigation water management. This study investigated barriers to improving water-use efficiency (WUE) in smallholder production practices in Numbi, South Africa. The objectives were to identify barriers in redesigning production practices [...] Read more.

Smallholder farmers in South Africa face issues related to water shortages and poor irrigation water management. This study investigated barriers to improving water-use efficiency (WUE) in smallholder production practices in Numbi, South Africa. The objectives were to identify barriers in redesigning production practices for higher agricultural productivity and analyze the relationship between irrigation water supply and the adoption of WUE methods. From a population of 7696 people, 141 smallholder farmers were sampled using a simple random sampling technique through Taro Yamane’s sample size formula. The data were analyzed using Pearson’s correlation coefficient and descriptive statistics. Unreliable water supply (M = 3.78, SD = 0.85), poor soil water retention (M = 3.78, SD = 0.85), lack of water-efficient irrigation systems (M = 3.91, SD = 0.71), lack of water storage facilities (M = 3.85, SD = 0.93), limited access to credit (M = 4.09, SD = 0.85), income instability due to market fluctuations (M = 3.96, SD = 0.91), inadequate knowledge of irrigation management (M = 4.00, SD = 0.84), and harsh climatic factors were identified. A positive correlation (r = 0.339, n = 141, p < 0.001) between irrigation water source and WUE techniques was evident, indicating that irrigation water source had an insignificant impact on WUE methods. Resolving these barriers requires a holistic approach focusing on investments in irrigation infrastructure and targeted education initiatives by extension agents and other stakeholders, as this can enhance agricultural productivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Methods and Tools for Sustainable Agricultural Water Management)

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19 pages, 5505 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of the Impact of Recycled Distillery Effluent on the Cultivation of Wheat and Sorghum

by Chi-Hsuan Huang, Li-Chi Chiang, Ci-Jyun Liao and Feng-Wen Chen

Water 2024, 16(22), 3220; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223220 (registering DOI) - 9 Nov 2024

With increasing global water scarcity, the reuse of treated wastewater for agricultural irrigation offers a promising solution, particularly in arid regions. This study evaluates the impact of distillery wastewater from Kinmen Kaoliang Liquor Inc. (KKL) on the growth of wheat and sorghum in [...] Read more.

With increasing global water scarcity, the reuse of treated wastewater for agricultural irrigation offers a promising solution, particularly in arid regions. This study evaluates the impact of distillery wastewater from Kinmen Kaoliang Liquor Inc. (KKL) on the growth of wheat and sorghum in the Kinmen region. The field experiment applied varying proportions of KKL wastewater to assess its effects on soil properties, nutrient distribution, and crop performance. The results showed that wastewater irrigation increased soil concentrations of key nutrients, such as potassium (K), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), and phosphorus (P), but also raised the electrical conductivity (EC) and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) beyond acceptable irrigation standards. K, Mg, Ca, and P primarily accumulated in the stems and grains, while Na was concentrated in the roots. However, higher wastewater concentrations negatively affected soil permeability due to Na accumulation, and elevated salinity levels led to reduced plant biomass. This study concludes that although wastewater irrigation improves nutrient availability, careful management is essential to mitigate salinity risks and ensure sustainable agricultural practices. These findings offer valuable insights into the potential of wastewater reuse in water-scarce regions and provide practical recommendations for managing associated risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Improved Irrigation Management Practices in Crop Production)

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17 pages, 1375 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Variability of Water Quality Indicators in the Municipality Water Supply System—A Case Study

by Andżelika Domoń, Weronika Wilczewska, Dorota Papciak and Beata Kowalska

Water 2024, 16(22), 3219; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223219 (registering DOI) - 8 Nov 2024

This study investigated the variability of water quality indicators in four municipal water distribution systems near a medium-sized city. Despite the proximity of water intakes, water quality in different distribution systems can vary significantly due to local factors such as infrastructure conditions, treatment [...] Read more.

This study investigated the variability of water quality indicators in four municipal water distribution systems near a medium-sized city. Despite the proximity of water intakes, water quality in different distribution systems can vary significantly due to local factors such as infrastructure conditions, treatment technology, and specific environmental conditions affecting water in each water supply network. Water samples were collected from multiple points in each system and analyzed for physicochemical properties. The results showed significant differences in total carbon, dissolved organic carbon, and ammonium nitrogen, indicating variability in water quality between systems. These results emphasize the need for integrated management strategies, innovative technologies, and real-time monitoring to maintain water quality. The study also highlights challenges such as aging infrastructure, pollution, and financial constraints in managing water supplies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Urban Water Management)

15 pages, 1615 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Physiographic Region on Pathogen Concentrations Between Stream Types

by E. A. Bradley, B. Graeme Lockaby, Todd Steury and Steven Madere

Water 2024, 16(22), 3218; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223218 (registering DOI) - 8 Nov 2024

Predicting public health risk associated with exposure to and recreational use of surface waters is often challenging due to substantial variability in concentrations of pathogenic bacteria, even among seemingly similar streams. In this study, we document significant differences in the surface water concentrations [...] Read more.

Predicting public health risk associated with exposure to and recreational use of surface waters is often challenging due to substantial variability in concentrations of pathogenic bacteria, even among seemingly similar streams. In this study, we document significant differences in the surface water concentrations of the common bacteria indicators Escherichia coli and fecal coliform between two major stream types—blackwater and redwater streams (p < 0.001). We propose and present evidence that these findings result from natural biogeochemical variation between physiographic regions (p < 0.001). These findings suggest that physiographic stream type may influence the degree of exposure to waterborne pathogens and risk of waterborne disease. Future research is needed to assess whether the inclusion of stream type in risk assessments can improve public health modeling and mapping. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water and One Health)

15 pages, 5853 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Evolution Mine Groundwater’s Hydrogeochemical Characteristics Under Influence of Mining and Grouting in Gubei Coal Mine, China

by Guanhong Xiao and Haifeng Lu

Water 2024, 16(22), 3217; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223217 (registering DOI) - 8 Nov 2024

Geological conditions or human activities will affect the hydrochemical characteristics and formation mechanism of mine groundwater to varying degrees. The northern part of the Beiyi mining area of Gubei Coal Mine is taken as the research area in this study. Based on the [...] Read more.

Geological conditions or human activities will affect the hydrochemical characteristics and formation mechanism of mine groundwater to varying degrees. The northern part of the Beiyi mining area of Gubei Coal Mine is taken as the research area in this study. Based on the data of 52 groups of limestone water (Taihui water) samples in the primary environment, in the mining stage and after grouting, the spatial and temporal variation trend of the chemical characteristics of Taihui water was studied by means of constant index mathematical statistics, a Piper diagram, total ionic salinity, correlation analysis, the ion ratio method and the saturation index. The purpose of this study is to analyze the influence of special geological structures, mining activities and grouting treatment on the formation process of the chemical characteristics of Taihui water, and to provide a basis for the identification of water inrush sources and the resource utilization of deep mine water in this area. The results show that in the three stages, the order of cation concentration is Na⁺ + K⁺ > Ca²⁺ > Mg²⁺, and the order of anion concentration is changed from Cl⁻ > SO₄²⁻ > HCO₃⁻ to Cl⁻ > HCO₃⁻ > SO₄²⁻. The hydrochemical type is the most abundant in the mining stage, and tends to be unified after grouting. The dissolution of carbonate minerals, gypsum, rock salt and silicate minerals; cation exchange; pyrite oxidation; and the mixing of grouting precipitation liquid mainly occur in the limestone water. These effects are enhanced or weakened due to the influence of pumping and drainage and grouting precipitation liquid. The results of this study may be beneficial to the sustainable utilization of deep groundwater resources in other similar mines, and promote the establishment of data management and identification mechanisms of water inrush sources in deep coal seams. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Hydrogeology)

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30 pages, 881 KiB

Open AccessReview

Managed Aquifer Recharge for Sustainable Groundwater Management: New Developments, Challenges, and Future Prospects

by Muhammad Sufyan, Grazia Martelli, Pietro Teatini, Claudia Cherubini and Daniele Goi

Water 2024, 16(22), 3216; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223216 (registering DOI) - 8 Nov 2024

The combined effect of climate change and increased water demand has put significant strain on groundwater resources globally. Managed aquifer recharge (MAR) has become an effective approach for addressing groundwater depletion problems and sustainable management of groundwater resources. This review article provides an [...] Read more.

The combined effect of climate change and increased water demand has put significant strain on groundwater resources globally. Managed aquifer recharge (MAR) has become an effective approach for addressing groundwater depletion problems and sustainable management of groundwater resources. This review article provides an extensive insight into the existing knowledge of MAR, including the main objectives and applications, implementation techniques (surface spreading, sub-surface, and induced recharge) being practiced over the years, risks and challenges associated with the MAR, and the developments in the field of MAR. This review also explores the potential of MAR in the Friuli Venezia Giulia (FVG) region, north-eastern Italy. An average increase in temperature and a decrease in precipitation and piezometric levels in the region suggest the development of a proper MAR plan to manage water resources in the decades to come. Additionally, a comparative analysis of studies published over the last 20 years, focusing on the quantitative and qualitative aspects of water resource management, is conducted to analyze the research trends in the field of MAR. The reviewed literature reveals a notable research trend towards the quantitative aspect compared to the qualitative one. This review also identifies a notable disparity in qualitative studies during the analysis of water quality parameters considered in different MAR studies. Based on this review, a prospective viewpoint to address the challenges and expand the scope of the field is presented. This calls for an optimized strategy that considers both water quality and quantity issues, along with incorporating environmental and socio-economic aspects within the framework of MAR. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Hydrogeology)

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22 pages, 5228 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrogeochemical Characteristics and Formation Mechanisms of High-Arsenic Groundwater in the North China Plain: Insights from Hydrogeochemical Analysis and Unsupervised Machine Learning

by Xiaofang Wu, Weijiang Liu, Yi Liu, Ganghui Zhu and Qiaochu Han

Water 2024, 16(22), 3215; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223215 (registering DOI) - 8 Nov 2024

Hydrochemical data were utilized in this study to elucidate the hydrogeochemical characteristics and genesis of high-arsenic groundwater in the North China Plain, employing both traditional hydrogeochemical analysis and unsupervised machine learning techniques. The findings indicate that the predominant hydrochemical types of groundwater in [...] Read more.

Hydrochemical data were utilized in this study to elucidate the hydrogeochemical characteristics and genesis of high-arsenic groundwater in the North China Plain, employing both traditional hydrogeochemical analysis and unsupervised machine learning techniques. The findings indicate that the predominant hydrochemical types of groundwater in the study area are HCO₃-Ca·Na and SO₄·Cl-Na·Ca. The primary mechanism influencing groundwater chemistry has been identified as rock weathering. The unsupervised machine learning framework incorporates various methods, such as principal component analysis (PCA), non-negative matrix factorization (NMF), machine learning models (gradient boosting trees and random forests), and cluster analysis to explore the characteristics and genesis of groundwater hydrochemical types within the study area. This study demonstrated that the formation mechanism of high-arsenic groundwater results from multiple interacting factors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Resources, Environment, and Ecosystems: Application of New Technology)

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