Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems

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Topic Information

Dear Colleagues,

Growing civilian and military demand for autonomous systems, including unmanned vehicles, has promoted the development of modern target tracking, guidance, and navigation technologies. Target information is vital for autonomous systems to interact with their surrounding environments, enabling them to complete their missions. However, the quality of target information is affected by the motion of the system itself, which implies that the target-tracking problem is inseparable from the guidance and navigation of autonomous systems. Modern technologies such as model-/data-driven estimation, heterogeneous data fusion, optimization, and artificial intelligence can improve target-tracking systems and, subsequently, change the overall performance of guidance and navigation. This Special Issue aims to identify recent theoretical and technical advances in target tracking, guidance, and navigation, which provide autonomous systems with a high degree of autonomy. Related topics include, but are not limited to: 

• Tracking maneuvering targets in cluttered/jammed environments;
• Joint target tracking and classification using heterogenous sensors;
• Centralized/distributed multi-sensor fusion;
• Optimal sensor arrangement;
• Guidance, navigation, and control of autonomous vehicles;
• Integrated target tracking and guidance;
• Dynamic model-based navigation;
• Swarm localization;
• Dynamic object tracking using SLAM (simultaneous localization and mapping);
• Applied artificial intelligence in target tracking, guidance, and navigation.

Prof. Dr. Won-Sang Ra
Prof. Dr. Shaoming He
Dr. Ivan Masmitja
Topic Editors

Keywords

Participating Journals

Journal Name	Impact Factor	CiteScore	Launched Year	First Decision (median)	APC
Aerospace aerospace	2.1	3.4	2014	21.3 Days	CHF 2400
Applied Sciences applsci	2.5	5.3	2011	18.4 Days	CHF 2400
Automation automation	-	2.9	2020	24.1 Days	CHF 1000
Drones drones	4.4	5.6	2017	19.2 Days	CHF 2600
Remote Sensing remotesensing	4.2	8.3	2009	23.9 Days	CHF 2700
Sensors sensors	3.4	7.3	2001	18.6 Days	CHF 2600

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15 pages, 4680 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

A Visual Navigation Algorithm for UAV Based on Visual-Geography Optimization

by Weibo Xu, Dongfang Yang, Jieyu Liu, Yongfei Li and Maoan Zhou

Drones 2024, 8(7), 313; https://doi.org/10.3390/drones8070313 - 10 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1994

Abstract

The estimation of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) poses using visual information is essential in Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)-denied environments. In this paper, we propose a UAV visual navigation algorithm based on visual-geography Bundle Adjustment (BA) to address the challenge of missing geolocation [...] Read more.

The estimation of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) poses using visual information is essential in Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)-denied environments. In this paper, we propose a UAV visual navigation algorithm based on visual-geography Bundle Adjustment (BA) to address the challenge of missing geolocation information in monocular visual navigation. This algorithm presents an effective approach to UAV navigation and positioning. Initially, Visual Odometry (VO) was employed for tracking the UAV’s motion and extracting keyframes. Subsequently, a geolocation method based on heterogeneous image matching was utilized to calculate the geographic pose of the UAV. Additionally, we introduce a tightly coupled information fusion method based on visual-geography optimization, which provides a geographic initializer and enables real-time estimation of the UAV’s geographical pose. Finally, the algorithm dynamically adjusts the weight of geographic information to improve optimization accuracy. The proposed method is extensively evaluated in both simulated and real-world environments, and the results demonstrate that our proposed approach can accurately and in real-time estimate the geographic pose of the UAV in a GNSS-denied environment. Specifically, our proposed approach achieves a root-mean-square error (RMSE) and mean positioning accuracy of less than 13 m. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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1 pages, 134 KiB  

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Chen et al. HP3D-V2V: High-Precision 3D Object Detection Vehicle-to-Vehicle Cooperative Perception Algorithm. Sensors 2024, 24, 2170

by Hongmei Chen, Haifeng Wang, Zilong Liu, Dongbing Gu and Wen Ye

Sensors 2024, 24(11), 3320; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24113320 - 23 May 2024

Viewed by 694

Abstract

In the original publication [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

21 pages, 11698 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

A New Autonomous Method of Drone Path Planning Based on Multiple Strategies for Avoiding Obstacles with High Speed and High Density

by Tongyao Yang, Fengbao Yang and Dingzhu Li

Drones 2024, 8(5), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/drones8050205 - 16 May 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2548

Abstract

Path planning is one of the most essential parts of autonomous navigation. Most existing works are based on the strategy of adjusting angles for planning. However, drones are susceptible to collisions in environments with densely distributed and high-speed obstacles, which poses a serious [...] Read more.

Path planning is one of the most essential parts of autonomous navigation. Most existing works are based on the strategy of adjusting angles for planning. However, drones are susceptible to collisions in environments with densely distributed and high-speed obstacles, which poses a serious threat to flight safety. To handle this challenge, we propose a new method based on Multiple Strategies for Avoiding Obstacles with High Speed and High Density (MSAO2H). Firstly, we propose to extend the obstacle avoidance decisions of drones into angle adjustment, speed adjustment, and obstacle clearance. Hybrid action space is adopted to model each decision. Secondly, the state space of the obstacle environment is constructed to provide effective features for learning decision parameters. The instant reward and the ultimate reward are designed to balance the learning efficiency of decision parameters and the ability to explore optimal solutions. Finally, we innovatively introduced the interferometric fluid dynamics system into the parameterized deep Q-network to guide the learning of angle parameters. Compared with other algorithms, the proposed model has high success rates and generates high-quality planned paths. It can meet the requirements for autonomously planning high-quality paths in densely dynamic obstacle environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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18 pages, 7234 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Cognitive Control Architecture for the Practical Realization of UAV Collision Avoidance

by Qirui Zhang, Ruixuan Wei and Songlin Huang

Sensors 2024, 24(9), 2790; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24092790 - 27 Apr 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1194

Abstract

A highly intelligent system often draws lessons from the unique abilities of humans. Current humanlike models, however, mainly focus on biological behavior, and the brain functions of humans are often overlooked. By drawing inspiration from brain science, this article shows how aspects of [...] Read more.

A highly intelligent system often draws lessons from the unique abilities of humans. Current humanlike models, however, mainly focus on biological behavior, and the brain functions of humans are often overlooked. By drawing inspiration from brain science, this article shows how aspects of brain processing such as sensing, preprocessing, cognition, obstacle learning, behavior, strategy learning, pre-action, and action can be melded together in a coherent manner with cognitive control architecture. This work is based on the notion that the anti-collision response is activated in sequence, which starts from obstacle sensing to action. In the process of collision avoidance, cognition and learning modules continuously control the UAV’s repertoire. Furthermore, simulated and experimental results show that the proposed architecture is effective and feasible. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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31 pages, 7166 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Computer Vision-Based Path Planning with Indoor Low-Cost Autonomous Drones: An Educational Surrogate Project for Autonomous Wind Farm Navigation

by Angel A. Rodriguez, Mohammad Shekaramiz and Mohammad A. S. Masoum

Drones 2024, 8(4), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/drones8040154 - 17 Apr 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2485

Abstract

The application of computer vision in conjunction with GPS is essential for autonomous wind turbine inspection, particularly when the drone navigates through a wind farm to detect the turbine of interest. Although drones for such inspections use GPS, our study only focuses on [...] Read more.

The application of computer vision in conjunction with GPS is essential for autonomous wind turbine inspection, particularly when the drone navigates through a wind farm to detect the turbine of interest. Although drones for such inspections use GPS, our study only focuses on the computer vision aspect of navigation that can be combined with GPS information for better navigation in a wind farm. Here, we employ an affordable, non-GPS-equipped drone within an indoor setting to serve educational needs, enhancing its accessibility. To address navigation without GPS, our solution leverages visual data captured by the drone’s front-facing and bottom-facing cameras. We utilize Hough transform, object detection, and QR codes to control drone positioning and calibration. This approach facilitates accurate navigation in a traveling salesman experiment, where the drone visits each wind turbine and returns to a designated launching point without relying on GPS. To perform experiments and investigate the performance of the proposed computer vision technique, the DJI Tello EDU drone and pedestal fans are used to represent commercial drones and wind turbines, respectively. Our detailed and timely experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of computer vision-based path planning in guiding the drone through a small-scale surrogate wind farm, ensuring energy-efficient paths, collision avoidance, and real-time adaptability. Although our efforts do not replicate the actual scenario of wind turbine inspection using drone technology, they provide valuable educational contributions for those willing to work in this area and educational institutions who are seeking to integrate projects like this into their courses, such as autonomous systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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21 pages, 7372 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Adaptive Terminal Time and Impact Angle Constraint Cooperative Guidance Strategy for Multiple Vehicles

by Ao Li, Xiaoxiang Hu, Shaohua Yang and Kejun Dong

Drones 2024, 8(4), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/drones8040134 - 2 Apr 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1501

Abstract

This paper addresses the guidance of various flight vehicles under multiple constraints in three-dimensional space. A cooperative guidance strategy that satisfies both time and angle constraints is designed to reach a moving target. The strategy is organized into two parts: modeling and programming [...] Read more.

This paper addresses the guidance of various flight vehicles under multiple constraints in three-dimensional space. A cooperative guidance strategy that satisfies both time and angle constraints is designed to reach a moving target. The strategy is organized into two parts: modeling and programming calculations. First, a nonlinear motion model for guidance is established and normalized, including both the vehicle and the target. Later, the arrival method is automatically determined according to the strategy and depending on the type of target. The cooperative terminal time is determined based on an augmented proportional navigation method. An improved model predictive static programming (MPSP) algorithm was designed as a means of adjusting the adaptive terminal time. Then, the algorithm was used to update the control quantity iteratively until the off-target quantity and the angle of constraints were satisfied. The simulation results showed that the strategy could enable multiple flight vehicles at different initial positions to reach the target accurately at the same time and with the ideal impact angle. The strategy boasts a high computational efficiency and is capable of being implemented in real time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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14 pages, 19042 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Precision Landing of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle under Wind Disturbance Using Derivative Sliding Mode Nonlinear Disturbance Observer-Based Control Method

by Sunghun Jung

Aerospace 2024, 11(4), 265; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11040265 - 29 Mar 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1288

Abstract

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are extensively employed in civilian and military applications because of their excellent maneuverability. Achieving fully autonomous quadrotor flight and precision landing on a wireless charging station in the presence of wind disturbance has become a crucial research topic. This [...] Read more.

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are extensively employed in civilian and military applications because of their excellent maneuverability. Achieving fully autonomous quadrotor flight and precision landing on a wireless charging station in the presence of wind disturbance has become a crucial research topic. This paper presents a composite control technique for UAV altitude and attitude tracking in harsh environments, i.e., wind disturbance. A composite controller was developed based on nonlinear disturbance observer (NDOB) control theory to allow the UAV to land in the presence of random external wind disturbances and ground effects. The NDOB estimated the unknown wind disturbance, and the estimation was fed into the derivative sliding mode nonlinear disturbance observer-based control (DSMNDOBC), allowing the UAV to perform autonomous precision landing. Two loop designs were applied: the inner loop for stabilization and the outer loop for altitude tracking. The quadrotor model dynamics and the proposed controller, DSMNDOBC, were simulated employing MATLAB/Simulink^®, and the results were compared with the one obtained by the proportional derivative (PD) controller and the sliding mode controller (SMC). The simulation results indicated that the DSMNDOBC has superior altitude and attitude control compared to the PD and SMC controllers and better disturbance estimation and attenuation performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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24 pages, 9001 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Path Planning for a Wheel-Foot Hybrid Parallel-Leg Walking Robot

by Xinxing Tang, Hongxin Pei and Deyong Zhang

Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2178; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072178 - 28 Mar 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1249

Abstract

Mobile robots require the ability to plan collision-free paths. This paper introduces a wheel-foot hybrid parallel-leg walking robot based on the 6-Universal-Prismatic-Universal-Revolute and 3-Prismatic (6UPUR + 3P) parallel mechanism model. To enhance path planning efficiency and obstacle avoidance capabilities, an improved artificial potential [...] Read more.

Mobile robots require the ability to plan collision-free paths. This paper introduces a wheel-foot hybrid parallel-leg walking robot based on the 6-Universal-Prismatic-Universal-Revolute and 3-Prismatic (6UPUR + 3P) parallel mechanism model. To enhance path planning efficiency and obstacle avoidance capabilities, an improved artificial potential field (IAPF) method is proposed. The IAPF functions are designed to address the collision problems and issues with goals being unreachable due to a nearby problem, local minima, and dynamic obstacle avoidance in path planning. Using this IAPF method, we conduct path planning and simulation analysis for the wheel-foot hybrid parallel-legged walking robot described in this paper, and compare it with the classic artificial potential field (APF) method. The results demonstrate that the IAPF method outperforms the classic APF method in handling obstacle-rich environments, effectively addresses collision problems, and the IAPF method helps to obtain goals previously unreachable due to nearby obstacles, local minima, and dynamic planning issues. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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18 pages, 30763 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

HP3D-V2V: High-Precision 3D Object Detection Vehicle-to-Vehicle Cooperative Perception Algorithm

by Hongmei Chen, Haifeng Wang, Zilong Liu, Dongbing Gu and Wen Ye

Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2170; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072170 - 28 Mar 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1700 | Correction

Abstract

Cooperative perception in the field of connected autonomous vehicles (CAVs) aims to overcome the inherent limitations of single-vehicle perception systems, including long-range occlusion, low resolution, and susceptibility to weather interference. In this regard, we propose a high-precision 3D object detection V2V cooperative perception [...] Read more.

Cooperative perception in the field of connected autonomous vehicles (CAVs) aims to overcome the inherent limitations of single-vehicle perception systems, including long-range occlusion, low resolution, and susceptibility to weather interference. In this regard, we propose a high-precision 3D object detection V2V cooperative perception algorithm. The algorithm utilizes a voxel grid-based statistical filter to effectively denoise point cloud data to obtain clean and reliable data. In addition, we design a feature extraction network based on the fusion of voxels and PointPillars and encode it to generate BEV features, which solves the spatial feature interaction problem lacking in the PointPillars approach and enhances the semantic information of the extracted features. A maximum pooling technique is used to reduce the dimensionality and generate pseudoimages, thereby skipping complex 3D convolutional computation. To facilitate effective feature fusion, we design a feature level-based crossvehicle feature fusion module. Experimental validation is conducted using the OPV2V dataset to assess vehicle coperception performance and compare it with existing mainstream coperception algorithms. Ablation experiments are also carried out to confirm the contributions of this approach. Experimental results show that our architecture achieves lightweighting with a higher average precision (AP) than other existing models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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18 pages, 7504 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Research on Vision-Based Servoing and Trajectory Prediction Strategy for Capturing Illegal Drones

by Jinyu Ma, Puhui Chen, Xinhan Xiong, Liangcheng Zhang, Shengdong Yu and Dongyuan Zhang

Drones 2024, 8(4), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/drones8040127 - 28 Mar 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1763

Abstract

A proposed strategy for managing airspace and preventing illegal drones from compromising security involves the use of autonomous drones equipped with three key functionalities. Firstly, the implementation of YOLO-v5 technology allows for the identification of illegal drones and the establishment of a visual-servo [...] Read more.

A proposed strategy for managing airspace and preventing illegal drones from compromising security involves the use of autonomous drones equipped with three key functionalities. Firstly, the implementation of YOLO-v5 technology allows for the identification of illegal drones and the establishment of a visual-servo system to determine their relative position to the autonomous drone. Secondly, an extended Kalman filter algorithm predicts the flight trajectory of illegal drones, enabling the autonomous drone to compensate in advance and significantly enhance the capture success rate. Lastly, to ensure system robustness and suppress interference from illegal drones, an adaptive fast nonsingular terminal sliding mode technique is employed. This technique achieves finite time convergence of the system state and utilizes delay estimation technology for the real-time compensation of unknown disturbances. The stability of the closed-loop system is confirmed through Lyapunov theory, and a model-based hardware-in-the-loop simulation strategy is adopted to streamline system development and improve efficiency. Experimental results demonstrate that the designed autonomous drone accurately predicts the trajectory of illegal drones, effectively captures them using a robotic arm, and maintains stable flight throughout the process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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24 pages, 7539 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

A Geomagnetic/Odometry Integrated Localization Method for Differential Robot Using Real-Time Sequential Particle Filter

by Qinghua Luo, Mutong Yu, Xiaozhen Yan, Zhiquan Zhou, Chenxu Wang and Boyuan Liu

Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2120; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072120 - 26 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1386

Abstract

Geomagnetic matching navigation is extensively utilized for localization and navigation of autonomous robots and vehicles owing to its advantages such as low cost, wide-area coverage, and no cumulative errors. However, due to the influence of magnetometer measurement noise, geomagnetic localization algorithms based on [...] Read more.

Geomagnetic matching navigation is extensively utilized for localization and navigation of autonomous robots and vehicles owing to its advantages such as low cost, wide-area coverage, and no cumulative errors. However, due to the influence of magnetometer measurement noise, geomagnetic localization algorithms based on single-point particle filters may encounter mismatches during continuous operation, consequently limiting their long-range localization performance. To address this issue, this paper proposes a real-time sequential particle filter-based geomagnetic localization method. Firstly, this method mitigates the impact of noise during continuous operation while ensuring real-time performance by performing real-time sequential particle filtering. Then, it enhances the long-range positioning accuracy of the method by rectifying the trajectory shape of the odometry through odometry calibration parameters. Finally, by performing secondary matching on the preliminary matching results via the MAGCOM algorithm, the positioning error of the method is further minimized. Experimental results show that the proposed method has higher positioning accuracy compared to related algorithms, resulting in reductions of over 28.58%, 37.11%, and 0.77% in RMSE, max error, and error at the end, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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18 pages, 8465 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Computer Vision-Based Position Estimation for an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle

by Jacek Zalewski and Stanisław Hożyń

Remote Sens. 2024, 16(5), 741; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16050741 - 20 Feb 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2420

Abstract

Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) are currently one of the most intensively developing branches of marine technology. Their widespread use and versatility allow them to perform tasks that, until recently, required human resources. One problem in AUVs is inadequate navigation, which results in inaccurate [...] Read more.

Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) are currently one of the most intensively developing branches of marine technology. Their widespread use and versatility allow them to perform tasks that, until recently, required human resources. One problem in AUVs is inadequate navigation, which results in inaccurate positioning. Weaknesses in electronic equipment lead to errors in determining a vehicle’s position during underwater missions, requiring periodic reduction of accumulated errors through the use of radio navigation systems (e.g., GNSS). However, these signals may be unavailable or deliberately distorted. Therefore, in this paper, we propose a new computer vision-based method for estimating the position of an AUV. Our method uses computer vision and deep learning techniques to generate the surroundings of the vehicle during temporary surfacing at the point where it is currently located. The next step is to compare this with the shoreline representation on the map, which is generated for a set of points that are in a specific vicinity of a point determined by dead reckoning. This method is primarily intended for low-cost vehicles without advanced navigation systems. Our results suggest that the proposed solution reduces the error in vehicle positioning to 30–60 m and can be used in incomplete shoreline representations. Further research will focus on the use of the proposed method in fully autonomous navigation systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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19 pages, 30001 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Artificial Potential Field Based Trajectory Tracking for Quadcopter UAV Moving Targets

by Cezary Kownacki

Sensors 2024, 24(4), 1343; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24041343 - 19 Feb 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2205

Abstract

The trajectory or moving-target tracking feature is desirable, because it can be used in various applications where the usefulness of UAVs is already proven. Tracking moving targets can also be applied in scenarios of cooperation between mobile ground-based and flying robots, where mobile [...] Read more.

The trajectory or moving-target tracking feature is desirable, because it can be used in various applications where the usefulness of UAVs is already proven. Tracking moving targets can also be applied in scenarios of cooperation between mobile ground-based and flying robots, where mobile ground-based robots could play the role of mobile landing pads. This article presents a novel proposition of an approach to position-tracking problems utilizing artificial potential fields (APF) for quadcopter UAVs, which, in contrast to well-known APF-based path planning methods, is a dynamic problem and must be carried out online while keeping the tracking error as low as possible. Also, a new flight control is proposed, which uses roll, pitch, and yaw angle control based on the velocity vector. This method not only allows the UAV to track a point where the potential function reaches its minimum but also enables the alignment of the course and velocity to the direction and speed given by the velocity vector from the APF. Simulation results present the possibilities of applying the APF method to holonomic UAVs such as quadcopters and show that such UAVs controlled on the basis of an APF behave as non-holonomic UAVs during 90° turns. This allows them and the onboard camera to be oriented toward the tracked target. In simulations, the AR Drone 2.0 model of the Parrot quadcopter is used, which will make it possible to easily verify the method in real flights in future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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14 pages, 5763 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Design and Verification of Observability-Driven Autonomous Vehicle Exploration Using LiDAR SLAM

by Donggyun Kim, Byungjin Lee and Sangkyung Sung

Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020120 - 30 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1752

Abstract

This paper explores the research topic of enhancing the reliability of unmanned mobile exploration using LiDAR SLAM. Specifically, it proposes a technique to analyze waypoints where 3D LiDAR SLAM can be smoothly performed in potential exploration areas and points where there is a [...] Read more.

This paper explores the research topic of enhancing the reliability of unmanned mobile exploration using LiDAR SLAM. Specifically, it proposes a technique to analyze waypoints where 3D LiDAR SLAM can be smoothly performed in potential exploration areas and points where there is a risk of divergence in navigation estimation. The goal is to improve exploration performance by presenting a method that secures these candidate regions. The analysis employs a 3D geometric observability matrix and its condition number to discriminate waypoints. Subsequently, the discriminated values are applied to path planning, resulting in the derivation of a final destination path connecting waypoints with a satisfactory SLAM position and attitude estimation performance. To validate the proposed technique, performance analysis was initially conducted using the Gazebo simulator. Additionally, experiments were performed with an autonomous unmanned vehicle in a real-world environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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18 pages, 6687 KiB  

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Optimal Model-Free Finite-Time Control Based on Terminal Sliding Mode for a Coaxial Rotor

by Hossam Eddine Glida, Chouki Sentouh and Jagat Jyoti Rath

Drones 2023, 7(12), 706; https://doi.org/10.3390/drones7120706 - 13 Dec 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2561

Abstract

This study focuses on addressing the tracking control problem for a coaxial unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) without any prior knowledge of its dynamic model. To overcome the limitations of model-based control, a model-free approach based on terminal sliding mode control is proposed for [...] Read more.

This study focuses on addressing the tracking control problem for a coaxial unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) without any prior knowledge of its dynamic model. To overcome the limitations of model-based control, a model-free approach based on terminal sliding mode control is proposed for achieving precise position and rotation tracking. The terminal sliding mode technique is utilized to approximate the unknown nonlinear model of the system, while the global stability with finite-time convergence of the overall system is guaranteed using the Lyapunov theory. Additionally, the selection of control parameters is addressed by incorporating the accelerated particle swarm optimization (APSO) algorithm. Finally, numerical simulation tests are provided to demonstrate the effectiveness and feasibility of the proposed design approach, which demonstrates the capability of the model-free control approach to achieve accurate tracking control even without prior knowledge of the system’s dynamic model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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25 pages, 5679 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Memory-Enhanced Twin Delayed Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient (ME-TD3)-Based Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle Trajectory Planning for Avoiding Radar Detection Threats in Dynamic and Unknown Environments

by Jiantao Li, Tianxian Zhang and Kai Liu

Remote Sens. 2023, 15(23), 5494; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15235494 - 25 Nov 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1948

Abstract

Unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV) trajectory planning to avoid radar detection threats is a complicated optimization problem that has been widely studied. The rapid changes in Radar Cross Sections (RCSs), the unknown cruise trajectory of airborne radar, and the uncertain distribution of radars [...] Read more.

Unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV) trajectory planning to avoid radar detection threats is a complicated optimization problem that has been widely studied. The rapid changes in Radar Cross Sections (RCSs), the unknown cruise trajectory of airborne radar, and the uncertain distribution of radars exacerbate the complexity of this problem. In this paper, we propose a novel UCAV trajectory planning method based on deep reinforcement learning (DRL) technology to overcome the adverse impacts caused by the dynamics and randomness of environments. A predictive control model is constructed to describe the dynamic characteristics of the UCAV trajectory planning problem in detail. To improve the UCAV’s predictive ability, we propose a memory-enhanced twin delayed deep deterministic policy gradient (ME-TD3) algorithm that uses an attention mechanism to effectively extract environmental patterns from historical information. The simulation results show that the proposed method can successfully train UCAVs to carry out trajectory planning tasks in dynamic and unknown environments. Furthermore, the ME-TD3 algorithm outperforms other classical DRL algorithms in UCAV trajectory planning, exhibiting superior performance and adaptability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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18 pages, 8277 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Trajectory-BERT: Trajectory Estimation Based on BERT Trajectory Pre-Training Model and Particle Filter Algorithm

by You Wu, Hongyi Yu, Jianping Du and Chenglong Ge

Sensors 2023, 23(22), 9120; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23229120 - 11 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1980

Abstract

In the realm of aviation, trajectory data play a crucial role in determining the target’s flight intentions and guaranteeing flight safety. However, the data collection process can be hindered by noise or signal interruptions, thus diminishing the precision of the data. This paper [...] Read more.

In the realm of aviation, trajectory data play a crucial role in determining the target’s flight intentions and guaranteeing flight safety. However, the data collection process can be hindered by noise or signal interruptions, thus diminishing the precision of the data. This paper uses the bidirectional encoder representations from transformers (BERT) model to solve the problem by masking the high-precision automatic dependent survey broadcast (ADS-B) trajectory data and estimating the mask position value based on the front and rear trajectory points during BERT model training. Through this process, the model acquires knowledge of intricate motion patterns within the trajectory data and acquires the BERT pre-training Model. Afterwards, a refined particle filter algorithm is utilized to generate alternative trajectory sets for observation trajectory data that is prone to noise. Ultimately, the BERT trajectory pre-training model is supplied with the alternative trajectory set, and the optimal trajectory is determined by computing the maximum posterior probability. The results of the experiment show that the model has good performance and is stronger than traditional algorithms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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21 pages, 3958 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Three-Dimensional Path-Following Control Method for Flying–Walking Power Line Inspection Robot Based on Improved Line of Sight

by Tianming Feng, Jin Lei, Yujie Zeng, Xinyan Qin, Yanqi Wang, Dexin Wang and Wenxing Jia

Aerospace 2023, 10(11), 945; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace10110945 - 6 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1827

Abstract

The Flying–Walking Power Line Inspection Robot (FPLIR) faces challenges in maintaining stability and reliability when operating in harsh transmission line environments with complex conditions. The robot often switches modes frequently to land accurately on the line, resulting in increasing following errors and premature [...] Read more.

The Flying–Walking Power Line Inspection Robot (FPLIR) faces challenges in maintaining stability and reliability when operating in harsh transmission line environments with complex conditions. The robot often switches modes frequently to land accurately on the line, resulting in increasing following errors and premature or delayed switching caused by reference path switching. To address these issues, a path-following control method based on improved line of sight (LOS) is proposed. The method features an adaptive acceptance circle strategy that adjusts the radius of the acceptance circle of the path point based on the angle of the path segment and the flight speed at the time of switching, improving path-following accuracy during reference trajectory switching. Also, an adaptive heading control with vertical distance feedback is designed to prioritize different path-following methods in real time based on variations in vertical distance, achieving rapid convergence along the following path. The state feedback following control law, based on the improved LOS, achieves the stable following of the reference path, which was validated by simulations. The simulation results show that the improved LOS reduces the convergence time by 0.8 s under controllable error conditions for path angles of θ ∈ (0, π⁄2). For path angles of θ ∈ (π⁄2, π), the following error is reduced by 0.3 m, and the convergence time is reduced by 0.4 s. These results validate the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed method. This method demonstrates advantages over the traditional LOS in terms of following accuracy and convergence speed, providing theoretical references for future 3D path following for path-following robots and aerial vehicles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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26 pages, 4597 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

A Multi-Constraint Guidance and Maneuvering Penetration Strategy via Meta Deep Reinforcement Learning

by Sibo Zhao, Jianwen Zhu, Weimin Bao, Xiaoping Li and Haifeng Sun

Drones 2023, 7(10), 626; https://doi.org/10.3390/drones7100626 - 8 Oct 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2175

Abstract

In response to the issue of UAV escape guidance, this study proposed a unified intelligent control strategy synthesizing optimal guidance and meta deep reinforcement learning (DRL). Optimal control with minor energy consumption was introduced to meet terminal latitude, longitude, and altitude. Maneuvering escape [...] Read more.

In response to the issue of UAV escape guidance, this study proposed a unified intelligent control strategy synthesizing optimal guidance and meta deep reinforcement learning (DRL). Optimal control with minor energy consumption was introduced to meet terminal latitude, longitude, and altitude. Maneuvering escape was realized by adding longitudinal and lateral maneuver overloads. The Maneuver command decision model is calculated based on soft-actor–critic (SAC) networks. Meta-learning was introduced to enhance the autonomous escape capability, which improves the performance of applications in time-varying scenarios not encountered in the training process. In order to obtain training samples at a faster speed, this study used the prediction method to solve reward values, avoiding a large number of numerical integrations. The simulation results demonstrated that the proposed intelligent strategy can achieve highly precise guidance and effective escape. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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30 pages, 2913 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Robust Collision-Free Guidance and Control for Underactuated Multirotor Aerial Vehicles

by Jorge A. Ricardo Jr and Davi A. Santos

Drones 2023, 7(10), 611; https://doi.org/10.3390/drones7100611 - 27 Sep 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1694

Abstract

This paper is concerned with the robust collision-free guidance and control of underactuated multirotor aerial vehicles in the presence of moving obstacles capable of accelerating, linear velocity and rotor thrust constraints, and matched model uncertainties and disturbances. We address this problem by using [...] Read more.

This paper is concerned with the robust collision-free guidance and control of underactuated multirotor aerial vehicles in the presence of moving obstacles capable of accelerating, linear velocity and rotor thrust constraints, and matched model uncertainties and disturbances. We address this problem by using a hierarchical flight control architecture composed of a supervisory outer-loop guidance module and an inner-loop stabilizing control one. The inner loop is designed using a typical hierarchical control scheme that nests the attitude control loop inside the position one. The effectiveness of this scheme relies on proper time-scale separation (TSS) between the closed-loop (faster) rotational and (slower) translational dynamics, which is not straightforward to enforce in practice. However, by combining an integral sliding mode attitude control law, which guarantees instantaneous tracking of the attitude commands, with a smooth and robust position control one, we enforce, by construction, the satisfaction of the TSS, thus avoiding the loss of robustness and use of a dull trial-and-error tweak of gains. On the other hand, the outer-loop guidance is built upon the continuous-control-obstacles method, which is incremented to respect the velocity and actuator constraints and avoid multiple moving obstacles that can accelerate. The overall method is evaluated using a numerical Monte Carlo simulation and is shown to be effective in providing satisfactory tracking performance, collision-free guidance, and the satisfaction of linear velocity and actuator constraints. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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24 pages, 6662 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

An Online Generation Method of Terminal-Area Trajectories for Wave-Rider Using Deep Neural Networks

by Zhe Liu, Jie Yan, Bangcheng Ai, Yonghua Fan, Kai Luo, Guodong Cai and Jiankai Qin

Aerospace 2023, 10(7), 654; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace10070654 - 23 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1515

Abstract

This paper presents a deep neural network-based online trajectory generation method for the aerodynamic characteristic description and terminal-area energy management of wave-rider aircrafts. First, the flight dynamics equations in the energy domain are linearized and discretized to generate numerous aircraft trajectory samples with [...] Read more.

This paper presents a deep neural network-based online trajectory generation method for the aerodynamic characteristic description and terminal-area energy management of wave-rider aircrafts. First, the flight dynamics equations in the energy domain are linearized and discretized to generate numerous aircraft trajectory samples with sequential convex optimization (SCO) methods. Then, an optimization objective function is designed to promote the smoothness of the control variables and improve the trajectory similarity. Compared to the nonlinear programming (NLP), the proposed trajectory sample generation method is more suitable for the training of deep neural networks (DNNs). Finally, deep neural networks are formulated and trained for the control variables and state variables, using the generated obtained trajectory samples, so that the reference trajectories can be obtained online during the energy management process of the wave-rider’s terminal phase. Numerical simulations validate the high accuracy of the trajectories generated with the deep neural network. Meanwhile, this proposed method enables smaller storage usage, which is highly suitable for integration into on-board flight control systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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16 pages, 1106 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Trajectory Optimization for Multi-Sensor Multi-Target Search and Tracking with Bearing-Only Measurements

by Xiwen Yang, Hang Yin, Shaoming He, Ye Xie and Hyo-Sang Shin

Aerospace 2023, 10(7), 652; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace10070652 - 20 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2051

Abstract

This paper proposes a trajectory optimization approach for multi-sensor multi-target search and tracking using bearing-only sensors. Based on the framework of the joint integrated probabilistic data association (JIPDA) filter, the intensity of potential unknown targets is updated according to the trajectories of the [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a trajectory optimization approach for multi-sensor multi-target search and tracking using bearing-only sensors. Based on the framework of the joint integrated probabilistic data association (JIPDA) filter, the intensity of potential unknown targets is updated according to the trajectories of the UAVs. The performance indices for target search and tracking are constructed based on, respectively, the intensity of unknown targets in the search area and the tracking error covariance. A dimensionless criterion, evaluating the search and tracking performance, is formulated and leveraged as the objective function of the UAV trajectory optimization problem. Simulations were carried out in different search and tracking scenarios to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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19 pages, 1104 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Geometry and Motion Coordination for Multisensor Target Tracking with Bearings-Only Measurements

by Shen Wang, Yinya Li, Guoqing Qi and Andong Sheng

Sensors 2023, 23(14), 6408; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23146408 - 14 Jul 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1491

Abstract

This paper focuses on the optimal geometry and motion coordination problem of mobile bearings-only sensors for improving target tracking performance. A general optimal sensor–target geometry is derived with uniform sensor–target distance using D-optimality for arbitrary n ($n\ge 2$) bearings-only sensors. [...] Read more.

This paper focuses on the optimal geometry and motion coordination problem of mobile bearings-only sensors for improving target tracking performance. A general optimal sensor–target geometry is derived with uniform sensor–target distance using D-optimality for arbitrary n ($n\ge 2$) bearings-only sensors. The optimal geometry is characterized by the partition cases dividing n into the sum of integers no less than two. Then, a motion coordination method is developed to steer the sensors to reach the circular radius orbit (CRO) around the target with a minimum sensor–target distance and move with a circular formation. The sensors are first driven to approach the target directly when outside the CRO. When the sensor reaches the CRO, they are then allocated to different subsets according to the partition cases through matching the optimal geometry. The sensor motion is optimized under constraints to achieve the matched optimal geometry by minimizing the sum of the distance traveled by the sensors. Finally, two illustrative examples are used to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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17 pages, 3645 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Tracking a Maneuvering Object by Indirect Observations with Random Delays

by Alexey Bosov

Drones 2023, 7(7), 468; https://doi.org/10.3390/drones7070468 - 13 Jul 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1427

Abstract

A mathematical model for the target tracking problem is proposed. The model makes it possible to describe conditions when the time for an observer to receive the results of indirect observations of a moving object depends not only on the state of the [...] Read more.

A mathematical model for the target tracking problem is proposed. The model makes it possible to describe conditions when the time for an observer to receive the results of indirect observations of a moving object depends not only on the state of the observation environment but also on the state of the object itself. The source of such a model is the observation process, by stationary means, of an autonomous underwater vehicle, in which the time for obtaining up-to-date data depends on the unknown distance between the object and the observer. As part of the study of the problem, the equations of the optimal Bayesian filter are obtained. But this filter is not possible to implement. For practical purposes, it is proposed to use the conditionally minimax nonlinear filter, which has shown promising results in other complex tracking models. The conditions for the filter’s evaluation and its accuracy characteristics are given. A large-scale numerical experiment illustrating the filter’s operation and the observation system’s features with random delays are described. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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22 pages, 27075 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Deep Dyna-Q for Rapid Learning and Improved Formation Achievement in Cooperative Transportation

by Almira Budiyanto and Nobutomo Matsunaga

Automation 2023, 4(3), 210-231; https://doi.org/10.3390/automation4030013 - 10 Jul 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2783

Abstract

Nowadays, academic research, disaster mitigation, industry, and transportation apply the cooperative multi-agent concept. A cooperative multi-agent system is a multi-agent system that works together to solve problems or maximise utility. The essential marks of formation control are how the multiple agents can reach [...] Read more.

Nowadays, academic research, disaster mitigation, industry, and transportation apply the cooperative multi-agent concept. A cooperative multi-agent system is a multi-agent system that works together to solve problems or maximise utility. The essential marks of formation control are how the multiple agents can reach the desired point while maintaining their position in the formation based on the dynamic conditions and environment. A cooperative multi-agent system closely relates to the formation change issue. It is necessary to change the arrangement of multiple agents according to the environmental conditions, such as when avoiding obstacles, applying different sizes and shapes of tracks, and moving different sizes and shapes of transport objects. Reinforcement learning is a good method to apply in a formation change environment. On the other hand, the complex formation control process requires a long learning time. This paper proposed using the Deep Dyna-Q algorithm to speed up the learning process while improving the formation achievement rate by tuning the parameters of the Deep Dyna-Q algorithm. Even though the Deep Dyna-Q algorithm has been used in many applications, it has not been applied in an actual experiment. The contribution of this paper is the application of the Deep Dyna-Q algorithm in formation control in both simulations and actual experiments. This study successfully implements the proposed method and investigates formation control in simulations and actual experiments. In the actual experiments, the Nexus robot with a robot operating system (ROS) was used. To confirm the communication between the PC and robots, camera processing, and motor controller, the velocities from the simulation were directly given to the robots. The simulations could give the same goal points as the actual experiments, so the simulation results approach the actual experimental results. The discount rate and learning rate values affected the formation change achievement rate, collision number among agents, and collisions between agents and transport objects. For learning rate comparison, DDQ (0.01) consistently outperformed DQN. DQN obtained the maximum −170 reward in about 130,000 episodes, while DDQ (0.01) could achieve this value in 58,000 episodes and achieved a maximum −160 reward. The application of an MEC (model error compensator) in the actual experiment successfully reduced the error movement of the robots so that the robots could produce the formation change appropriately. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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22 pages, 5608 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Omni-Directional Capture for Multi-Drone Based on 3D-Voronoi Tessellation

by Kai Cao, Yang-Quan Chen, Song Gao, Kun Yan, Jiahao Zhang and Di An

Drones 2023, 7(7), 458; https://doi.org/10.3390/drones7070458 - 10 Jul 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2404

Abstract

This paper addresses the multi-drone formation capture in three-dimensional (3D) environments. The omni-directional minimum volume (ODMV) 3D-Voronoi diagram algorithm is proposed for the first time to achieve the two goals of (1) forming and keeping a capture and (2) planning the control action [...] Read more.

This paper addresses the multi-drone formation capture in three-dimensional (3D) environments. The omni-directional minimum volume (ODMV) 3D-Voronoi diagram algorithm is proposed for the first time to achieve the two goals of (1) forming and keeping a capture and (2) planning the control action within its safe, collision region for each drone. First, we extend the traditional 2D Voronoi diagram to the 3D environment and use the non-overlapping spatial division property of 3D Voronoi diagram to inherently avoid the collision between drones. Second, we make improvements to the problem of capture angle in our minimum area strategy and propose an omni-directional minimum volume strategy to accomplish the effective capture of a target by constraining the capture angle. Finally, the wolf pack algorithm (WPA) with variable step size is introduced to provide a movement strategy for multi-drone formations. Thus, the proposed ODMV can also achieve dynamic target and multi target capture in environments with obstacles. The Optitrack motion capture system and Crazyflie drones are used to conduct the multi-drone capture experiment. Both simulation and experimental results are included to demonstrated the effectiveness of the proposed ODMV method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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16 pages, 15413 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

EF-TTOA: Development of a UAV Path Planner and Obstacle Avoidance Control Framework for Static and Moving Obstacles

by Hongbao Du, Zhengjie Wang and Xiaoning Zhang

Drones 2023, 7(6), 359; https://doi.org/10.3390/drones7060359 - 29 May 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2333

Abstract

With the increasing applications of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) in surveying, mapping, rescue, etc., the security of autonomous flight in complex environments becomes a crucial issue. Deploying autonomous UAVs in complex environments typically requires them to have accurate dynamic obstacle perception, such as [...] Read more.

With the increasing applications of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) in surveying, mapping, rescue, etc., the security of autonomous flight in complex environments becomes a crucial issue. Deploying autonomous UAVs in complex environments typically requires them to have accurate dynamic obstacle perception, such as the detection of birds and other flying vehicles at high altitudes, as well as humans and ground vehicles at low altitudes or indoors. This work’s primary goal is to cope with both static and moving obstacles in the environment by developing a new framework for UAV planning and control. Firstly, the point clouds acquired from the depth camera are divided into dynamic and static points, and then the velocity of the point cloud clusters is estimated. The static point cloud is used as the input for the local mapping. Path finding is simplified by identifying key points among static points. Secondly, the design of a trajectory tracking and obstacle avoidance controller based on the control barrier function guarantees security for moving and static obstacles. The path-finding module can stably search for the shortest path, and the controller can deal with moving obstacles with high-frequency. Therefore, the UAV can deal with both long-term planning and immediate emergencies. The framework proposed in this work enables a UAV to operate in a wider field, with better security and real-time performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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21 pages, 9356 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Path Tracking Controller of Underground Articulated Vehicle Based on Nonlinear Model Predictive Control

by Nan Sun, Wenming Zhang and Jue Yang

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(9), 5340; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13095340 - 25 Apr 2023

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2322

Abstract

This paper proposes an integrated path tracking controller for articulated vehicles. A nonlinear model-predictive control (NMPC)-based reference state tracker is designed as an upper-level controller to solve the vehicle’s longitudinal velocity and steering rate. A terminal cost is introduced into the NMPC to [...] Read more.

This paper proposes an integrated path tracking controller for articulated vehicles. A nonlinear model-predictive control (NMPC)-based reference state tracker is designed as an upper-level controller to solve the vehicle’s longitudinal velocity and steering rate. A terminal cost is introduced into the NMPC to improve the controller’s stability. A lower-level controller is developed to translate upper-level solutions into vehicle actuators’ signals, including steering and driving controllers. The steering controller translates the steering rate into the linear velocity of the cylinder to calculate the required fluid volume and ultimately into the rotation speed of the steering motor. The neural network method is applied in the driving controller to ensure accuracy under different loadings. In order to investigate the effects of the path tracking controller, an articulated dump truck is adapted for the field tests by adding the steering-by-wire system and driving-by-wire system, respectively. Experimental verifications of the lower-level controller are performed. The results show that the controller can accurately satisfy the demand. Finally, the tracking performance of the integrated path tracking controller is analyzed experimentally under different reference velocities. The results indicate that tracking accuracy can be guaranteed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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20 pages, 6841 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Modified ADRC Design of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor Based on Improved Memetic Algorithm

by Gang Liu, Chuanfang Xu and Longda Wang

Sensors 2023, 23(7), 3621; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23073621 - 30 Mar 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2790

Abstract

In this paper, a novel modified auto disturbance rejection control (ADRC) design of a permanent magnet synchronous motor based on the improved memetic algorithm (IMA) is proposed. Firstly, there is an obvious system ripple caused by the defect that the optimal control function [...] Read more.

In this paper, a novel modified auto disturbance rejection control (ADRC) design of a permanent magnet synchronous motor based on the improved memetic algorithm (IMA) is proposed. Firstly, there is an obvious system ripple caused by the defect that the optimal control function used in traditional ADRC cannot be differentiable and smooth at the segment point; aiming at weakening the system ripple effectively, the proposed method constructs a novel differentiable and smooth optimal control function to modify the ADRC design. Furthermore, aiming at improving the integration parameters optimization effect effectively, a novel improved memetic algorithm is proposed for obtaining the optimal parameters of ADRC. Specifically, an IMA with high-quality balance based on an adaptive nonlinear decreasing strategy for the convergence factor, Gaussian mutation mechanism, improved learning mechanism with the high-quality balance between competitive and opposition-based learning (OBL) and an elite set maintenance mechanism based on fusion distance is proposed so that these strategies can improve the optimization precision by a large margin. Finally, the experiment results of the PMSM speed control practical cases show that the ADRC based on IMA has an apparent better optimization effect than that of fuzzy PI, traditional ADRC based on the genetic algorithm and an improved ADRC based on improved moth–flame optimization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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20 pages, 5139 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Lane Level Positioning Method for Unmanned Driving Based on Inertial System and Vector Map Information Fusion Applicable to GNSS Denied Environments

by Minpeng Dai, Haoyang Li, Jian Liang, Chunxi Zhang, Xiong Pan, Yizhuo Tian, Jinguo Cao and Yuxuan Wang

Drones 2023, 7(4), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/drones7040239 - 29 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3354

Abstract

With the development of vehicle sensors, unmanned driving has become a research hotspot. Positioning is also considered to be one of the most challenging directions in this field. Aiming at the poor positioning accuracy of vehicles under GNSS denied environments, a lane-level positioning [...] Read more.

With the development of vehicle sensors, unmanned driving has become a research hotspot. Positioning is also considered to be one of the most challenging directions in this field. Aiming at the poor positioning accuracy of vehicles under GNSS denied environments, a lane-level positioning method based on inertial system and vector map information fusion is proposed. A dead reckoning model based on optical fiber IMU and odometer is established, and its positioning error is regarded as a priori information. Furthermore, a map matching model based on HMM is built up. Three validation experiments are carried out and experimental results show that the positioning error can be reduced to less than 30 cm when driving for about 7 min, which proves the effectiveness of the proposed method. Our work may provide a reference for the further improvement of positioning for unmanned driving under GNSS denied environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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23 pages, 2872 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Attitude-Orbit Coupled Control of Gravitational Wave Detection Spacecraft with Communication Delays

by Yu Zhang, Yuan Liu, Jikun Yang, Zhenkun Lu and Juzheng Zhang

Sensors 2023, 23(6), 3233; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23063233 - 17 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2361

Abstract

In order to meet the position and attitude requirements of spacecrafts and test masses for gravitational-wave detection missions, the attitude-orbit coordination control of multiple spacecrafts and test masses is studied. A distributed coordination control law for spacecraft formation based on dual quaternion is [...] Read more.

In order to meet the position and attitude requirements of spacecrafts and test masses for gravitational-wave detection missions, the attitude-orbit coordination control of multiple spacecrafts and test masses is studied. A distributed coordination control law for spacecraft formation based on dual quaternion is proposed. By describing the relationship between spacecrafts and test masses in the desired states, the coordination control problem is converted into a consistent-tracking control problem in which each spacecraft or test mass tracks its desired states. An accurate attitude-orbit relative dynamics model of the spacecraft and the test masses is proposed based on dual quaternions. A cooperative feedback control law based on a consistency algorithm is designed to achieve the consistent attitude tracking of multiple rigid bodies (spacecraft and test mass) and maintain the specific formation configuration. Moreover, the communication delays of the system are taken into account. The distributed coordination control law ensures almost global asymptotic convergence of the relative position and attitude error in the presence of communication delays. The simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed control method, which meets the formation-configuration requirements for gravitational-wave detection missions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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35 pages, 8107 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Continuous Low-Thrust Maneuver Planning for Space Gravitational Wave Formation Reconfiguration Based on Improved Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm

by Zhenkun Lu, Jihe Wang, Xiaobin Lian, Juzheng Zhang, Yu Zhang and Jikun Yang

Sensors 2023, 23(6), 3154; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23063154 - 15 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2716

Abstract

This study proposes a three-spacecraft formation reconfiguration strategy of minimum fuel for space gravitational wave detection missions in the high Earth orbit (10⁵ km). For solving the limitations of measurement and communication in long baseline formations, a control strategy of a virtual [...] Read more.

This study proposes a three-spacecraft formation reconfiguration strategy of minimum fuel for space gravitational wave detection missions in the high Earth orbit (10⁵ km). For solving the limitations of measurement and communication in long baseline formations, a control strategy of a virtual formation is applied. The virtual reference spacecraft provides a desired relative state between the satellites, which is then used to control the motion of the physical spacecraft to maintain the desired formation. A linear dynamics model based on relative orbit elements’ parameterization is used to describe the relative motion in the virtual formation, which facilitates the inclusion of J₂, SRP, and lunisolar third-body gravity effects and provides a direct insight into the relative motion geometry. Considering the actual flight scenarios of gravitational wave formations, a formation reconfiguration strategy based on continuous low thrust is investigated to achieve the desired state at a given time while minimizing interference to the satellite platform. The reconfiguration problem is considered a constrained nonlinear programming problem, and an improved particle swarm algorithm is developed to solve this problem. Finally, the simulation results demonstrate the performance of the proposed method in improving the maneuver sequence distribution and optimizing maneuver consumption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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18 pages, 7627 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Real-Time 6-DOF Motion-Tracking System for Robotic Computer-Assisted Implant Surgery

by Minki Sin, Jang Ho Cho, Hyukjin Lee, Kiyoung Kim, Hyun Soo Woo and Ji-Man Park

Sensors 2023, 23(5), 2450; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23052450 - 22 Feb 2023

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4027

Abstract

In this paper, we investigate a motion-tracking system for robotic computer-assisted implant surgery. Failure of the accurate implant positioning may result in significant problems, thus an accurate real-time motion-tracking system is crucial for avoiding these issues in computer-assisted implant surgery. Essential features of [...] Read more.

In this paper, we investigate a motion-tracking system for robotic computer-assisted implant surgery. Failure of the accurate implant positioning may result in significant problems, thus an accurate real-time motion-tracking system is crucial for avoiding these issues in computer-assisted implant surgery. Essential features of the motion-tracking system are analyzed and classified into four categories: workspace, sampling rate, accuracy, and back-drivability. Based on this analysis, requirements for each category have been derived to ensure that the motion-tracking system meets the desired performance criteria. A novel 6-DOF motion-tracking system is proposed which demonstrates high accuracy and back-drivability, making it suitable for use in computer-assisted implant surgery. The results of the experiments confirm the effectiveness of the proposed system in achieving the essential features required for a motion-tracking system in robotic computer-assisted implant surgery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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24 pages, 16828 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Precision Landing Tests of Tethered Multicopter and VTOL UAV on Moving Landing Pad on a Lake

by Cezary Kownacki, Leszek Ambroziak, Maciej Ciężkowski, Adam Wolniakowski, Sławomir Romaniuk, Arkadiusz Bożko and Daniel Ołdziej

Sensors 2023, 23(4), 2016; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23042016 - 10 Feb 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4120

Abstract

Autonomous take-off and landing on a moving landing pad are extraordinarily complex and challenging functionalities of modern UAVs, especially if they must be performed in windy environments. The article presents research focused on achieving such functionalities for two kinds of UAVs, i.e., a [...] Read more.

Autonomous take-off and landing on a moving landing pad are extraordinarily complex and challenging functionalities of modern UAVs, especially if they must be performed in windy environments. The article presents research focused on achieving such functionalities for two kinds of UAVs, i.e., a tethered multicopter and VTOL. Both vehicles are supported by a landing pad navigation station, which communicates with their ROS-based onboard computer. The computer integrates navigational data from the UAV and the landing pad navigational station through the utilization of an extended Kalman filter, which is a typical approach in such applications. The novelty of the presented system is extending navigational data with data from the ultra wide band (UWB) system, and this makes it possible to achieve a landing accuracy of about 1 m. In the research, landing tests were carried out in real conditions on a lake for both UAVs. In the tests, a special mobile landing pad was built and based on a barge. The results show that the expected accuracy of 1 m is indeed achieved, and both UAVs are ready to be tested in real conditions on a ferry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Target Tracking, Guidance, and Navigation for Autonomous Systems)

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