Characteristics of Graphene Oxide for Gene Transfection and Controlled Release in Breast Cancer Cells
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Characteristics of GO as a Nanocarrier
2.1. Size and Two-Dimensional Structure
2.2. Functionalization
2.2.1. Covalent Modification
2.2.2. Non-Covalent Modification
2.2.3. Targeting Strategy
2.2.4. Gene Loading Efficiency of GO-Based Carriers
3. Toxicity
3.1. In Vitro Toxicity
3.1.1. Dose-, Time-, and Cell-Line-Dependent Cytotoxicity
3.1.2. Charge- and Functionalization-Dependent Cytotoxicity
3.1.3. Size-Dependent Cytotoxicity
3.1.4. Oxidative Stress
3.1.5. GO Clearance from Cells and Biodegradation
3.2. In Vivo Toxicity
3.2.1. Inflammatory Response
3.2.2. GO Biodistribution and Clearance from the Body
4. Controlled Release Strategies
4.1. pH-Sensitive Platforms for Control Release
4.2. Reducible Intracellular Environment
4.3. Enzyme-Induced Tumor Initiation
4.4. Near IR Stimuli and Treatment
4.5. Heat Treatment
4.6. Competitive Molecules
5. Challenges and Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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GO Modification | Modification Mechanism | Agents |
---|---|---|
Covalent | Amidation | PEG [62,63,77,86] |
PAMAM [16,17,87] | ||
PEI [88,89] | ||
Chitosan [64,65,66] | ||
DEX [90] | ||
Ring-opening reaction | PEG [17] | |
APTES [53] | ||
Esterification | PEG [91] | |
Non-covalent | π-π stacking | MUC1 aptamer [72] |
Electrostatic interactions | PEG [67,70] | |
PEI [67] | ||
Hydrophobic interactions | Phospholipids [52,70] |
GO Modification | Payload Type (Targeting Agent) | N/P Ratio (w/w) | Gene Silencing | Cell Type |
---|---|---|---|---|
PEG | a miRNA 101 (PLA) [62] | 1−3.8 | - | MCF-7, MDA-MB-231 |
a cd-siRNA (R8) [70] | 10 | - | ||
a P-gp siRNA (FA) [88] | 4 | 70% | ||
b Rictor siRNA (R8) [67] | 0.5 | 70% | ||
a EPAC1-siRNA [17] | 2 | 62% | MDA-MB-231 | |
PAMAM | a EPAC1-siRNA [17] | 2 | 62% | MDA-MB-231 |
b miR-21i [16] | - | - | ||
b MMP-9 shRNA [87] | 10 | 52% | MCF-7 | |
PEI | a P-gp siRNA (FA) [88] | 4 | 70% | MCF-7, MDA-MB-231 |
b Rictor siRNA (R8) [67] | 0.5 | 70% | ||
Chitosan | b Survivin siRNA (anti-EpCAM) [51] | 30 | 44% | MCF-7 |
a HIF-1α siRNA (HA) [65] | 6.5 | 62% | 4T1 | |
a EGFR siRNA (FA) [66] | - | - | MCF-7, MDA-MB-231 | |
Peptide | a cd-siRNA (R8) [70] | 10 | - | MCF-7, MDA-MB-231 |
b Rictor siRNA (R8) [67] | 0.5 | 70% | ||
b Survivin siRNA (anti-HER2) [64] | 40 | 50% | MCF-7 |
Nanoparticle | Cell Type | Dose (µg/mL)/Dependency | Time (Day)/Dependency | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
GONR (PEG-DSPE) [122] | HeLa; MCF-7; SKBR; NIH3T3 | 10−400 | Y | 0.5−2 | Y |
GO | PMO; J774A.1; LLC; MCF-7; HepG2; HUVEC [117] | 0−20 | Y | 1, 2, and 4 | - |
HDF [129] | 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 | Y | 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 | Y | |
A549 [130,131] | 10, 25, 50, 100, and 200 | N | 1, 2, and 3 | N | |
HepG2 [132] | 4, 8, and 16 | Y | 1 and 3 | Y | |
GO, GOD and GOP a [114] | MCF-7 | 2.4, 24, and 48 (μg/cm2) | Y | 1, 2, and 3 | N |
GO-DEX-Apt-CUR b [90] | 4T1; MCF-7 | Up to 300 | Y | 1 and 2 | N |
Lipid-rGO [119] | MDA-MB-231 | 10, 50, and 100 | Y | 1 and 2 | Y |
MCF-7; MCF 10-A | N | N | |||
rGO [118] | MDA-MB-231; ZR-75-1 | 25−300 | Y | 1 and 2 | Y |
MCF-7; Hs 578T; T-47D | N | N | |||
Graphene/SWCNT [128] | PC12 | 0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, and 100 | Y | 1−24 h | Y |
Nanocarriee | Size (nm) | Zeta Potential (mV) | |
---|---|---|---|
GO | NP | ||
GO-PEI [133] | 250−500 | −53 | +50 |
GO-DOTAP [52] | 100−150 | −30 | +15 |
rGO-MPAH-FA [136] | 100−230 | −45 | +40 |
GO-anti HER2-R8 [51] | 120−260 | −49 | +26 |
GO-anti EpCAM-Chitosan [64] | 70−350 | −42 | +38 |
GO-PEG-PAMAM [17] | 54−220 | −30 | +10 |
Release Trigger | Responsive Molecules | Responsive Functional Groups/Bonds | Mechanism |
---|---|---|---|
pH | GO + cationic molecules, pH-sensitive hydrogels | Amide [162], imine [189], hydrazone [190], ester [191], and oxime [192] | Protonation |
Reducible intracellular environment | GO + molecules containing disulfide bonds | Disulfide bonds | Redox [123,185,193] |
Enzymes | Phosphatase, collagenase, cathepsin | Peptide bonds | Degradation [186,194] |
NIR irradiation | GO | Aromatic C-C bonds | PDT and PTT [168,195,196] |
Temperature treatment | Thermo-sensitive hydrogels | Hydrogen bonds between the polymer molecules and/or water | Phase-volume transition [197,198] |
Competitive molecules | GO + polyaromatic cationic molecules | Hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions between GO and the polyaromatic cationic molecules | Desorption of genes [187,188] |
GO + cellular DNA | Hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases of the two DNA strands | Desorption of genes [187] |
pH | Efficiency | GO Functionalization | Drug/Gene | Time (h) | Cell Type |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
<7 | 20% | GO-PAMAM [87] | DOX | 144 | MCF-7 |
7.4 | 17% | ||||
<7 | 40% | PPG-FA a [88] | DOX | 48 | MCF-7/ADR |
7.4 | 10% | ||||
<7 | 60% | CS-g-PMAA/GO b [202] | DOX | 220 | MCF-7 |
7.4 | 25% | ||||
<7 | 71% | GO [200] | DXR | 30 | - |
7.4 | 11% | ||||
<7 | 95% | FA-rGO/ZnS:Mn c [203] | DOX | 70 | MDA-MB 231 |
7.4 | 150% | ||||
<7 | 28% | GO-Gel-BSA [186] | DOX | - | MCF-7 |
7.4 | 10% | ||||
<7 | 58% | CGO-TMC-HA d [65] | Dinaciclib | 36 | 4T1 |
7.4 | 50% | ||||
<7 | 90% | Chitosan [64] | Survivin_siRNA | 200 | MCF-7 |
7.4 | 30% | ||||
<7 | 80% | Chitosan-HA [65] | HIF-1α_siRNA and Dinaciclib | 32 | 4T1, CT26, B16-F10, TM3 |
7.4 | 70% | ||||
<7 | 12% | PAMAM [17] | siRNA | 72 | MDA-MB-231 |
7.4 | 61% |
Trigger | NPs | Cell Type | Effect |
---|---|---|---|
430 nm laser (100 J/cm2) | GO-Ag | MCF-7 | ROS production [214] |
NIR | GO-FA | MDA-MB-231 | PTT [195] |
nGO-CuSQDs | MCF-7 | Apoptosis [148] | |
rGO-nZVI | MCF-7 | PTT [215] | |
LED (660 nm) | GO-MB | MDA-MB-231 | PDT [168] |
GQDs-MB | MCF-7 | ROS production and apoptosis [213] |
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Grilli, F.; Hajimohammadi Gohari, P.; Zou, S. Characteristics of Graphene Oxide for Gene Transfection and Controlled Release in Breast Cancer Cells. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23, 6802. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23126802
Grilli F, Hajimohammadi Gohari P, Zou S. Characteristics of Graphene Oxide for Gene Transfection and Controlled Release in Breast Cancer Cells. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2022; 23(12):6802. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23126802
Chicago/Turabian StyleGrilli, Francesca, Parisa Hajimohammadi Gohari, and Shan Zou. 2022. "Characteristics of Graphene Oxide for Gene Transfection and Controlled Release in Breast Cancer Cells" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 12: 6802. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23126802