The Effect of Rainfall on the Population Densities and Community Structure of Birds in an Urbanized Zambezi Riparian Forest
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Study Area
3. Methods
- Diet: G—granivorous, I—insectivorous, F—frugivorous, N—nectarivorous, and R—carnivorous.
- Nesting: T—in trees or shrubs, H—in holes, B—in/on buildings, and V—herbaceous vegetation.
- Habitat: F—forest interior, E—ecotone (forest/open area), and O—‘open’ area (grassland/savanna).
- Residency: R—resident throughout the year, A—intra-African migrant, and C—nomad.
- where: pi is the proportion of breeding pairs belonging to the ith species
- where: n—the total number of breeding pairs belonging to a given species and N—the total number of breeding pairs of all species
- where: pi is the proportion of breeding pairs belonging to the ith species and S is the total number of species. J’ varies between 0 and 1. The less variation between species in a community, the higher J’ is.
- where: n1, n2—number of pairs of the two most abundant species and N—the total number of pairs of all species.
- where: A—the number of bird species in one breeding season, B—the number of bird species in another breeding season, and C—the number of bird species common to both breeding seasons.
4. Results
5. Discussion
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Species | 2013/14 | 2015/16 | ||||
N | D | %D | N | D | %D | |
Accipiter badius | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 |
Accipiter minullus | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Accipiter tachiro | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Amaurornis flavirostris | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Amblyospiza albifrons | 5 | 9.3 | 1.4 | 4 | 7.4 | 1.0 |
Apalis flavida | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 |
Apus affinis | 5 | 9.3 | 1.4 | 5 | 9.3 | 1.2 |
Batis molitor | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 |
Bostrychia hagedash | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 1.5 | 2.8 | 0.4 |
Bubo africanus | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Buphagus erythrorhynchus | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.1 |
Butorides striata | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Bycanistes bucinator | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 |
Camaroptera brevicaudata | 5 | 9.3 | 1.4 | 7 | 13 | 1.7 |
Campethera abingoni | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Centropus senegalensis | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 |
Centropus superciliosus | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Cercopis abyssinica | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 4 | 7.4 | 1.0 |
Cercopis cucullata | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 3 | 5.6 | 0.7 |
Ceryle rudis | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Chalcomitra senegalensis | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Chlorocichla flaviventris | 6 | 11.1 | 1.6 | 7 | 13 | 1.7 |
Chlorophoneus sulfureopectus | 4 | 7.4 | 1.1 | 3 | 5.6 | 0.7 |
Chrysococcyx caprius | 1.5 | 2.8 | 0.4 | 1.5 | 2.8 | 0.4 |
Cinnyricinclus leucogaster | 4 | 7.4 | 1.1 | 3 | 5.6 | 0.7 |
Cinnyris mariquensis | 3 | 5.6 | 0.8 | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 |
Cinnyris talatala | 6 | 11.1 | 1.6 | 13 | 24.1 | 3.2 |
Circaetus cinerascens | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.1 |
Cisticola cheniana | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 3 | 5.6 | 0.7 |
Coracias caudatus | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Corvus albus | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 |
Cossypha heuglini | 10 | 18.5 | 2.7 | 12 | 22.2 | 3.0 |
Crithagra atrogularis | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Cuculus clamosus | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Cuculus gularis | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Cuculus solitarius | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.1 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.1 |
Cypsiurus parvus | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Dendropicos fuscescens | 2.5 | 4.6 | 0.7 | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 |
Dendropicos namaquus | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.1 |
Dicrurus adsimilis | 4 | 7.4 | 1.1 | 7 | 13 | 1.7 |
Dryoscopus cubla | 5 | 9.3 | 1.4 | 5 | 9.3 | 1.2 |
Emberiza flaviventris | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Estrilda astrild | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | 3 | 5.6 | 0.7 |
Eurystomus glaucurus | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Falco dickinsoni | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Glaucidium perlatum | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Halcyon leucocephala | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 | 3.5 | 6.5 | 0.9 |
Halcyon senegalensis | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.1 |
Haliaeetus vocifer | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.1 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.1 |
Hedydipna collaris | 3 | 5.6 | 0.8 | 3 | 5.6 | 0.7 |
Hirundo smithii | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 | 3 | 5.6 | 0.7 |
Indicator indicator | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Ixobrychus minutus | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Ixobrychus sturmii | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Kaupifalco monogrammicus | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.1 |
Lagonosticta nitidula | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 |
Lamprotonis australis | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Lamprotornis nitens | 4 | 7.4 | 1.1 | 7 | 13 | 1.7 |
Laniarius bicolor | 3 | 5.6 | 0.8 | 4 | 7.4 | 1.0 |
Laniarius major | 7 | 13 | 1.9 | 5 | 9.3 | 1.2 |
Logonosticta senegala | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Lonchura cucculata | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 |
Lybius torquatus | 4 | 7.4 | 1.1 | 6 | 11.1 | 1.5 |
Malaconotus blanchoti | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Megaceryle maxima | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Melaniparus cinerascens | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Melaniparus niger | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Merops pusillus | 3 | 5.6 | 0.8 | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 |
Micronisus gabar | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Microparra capensis | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.1 |
Milvus aegyptius | 1.5 | 2.8 | 0.4 | 1.5 | 2.8 | 0.4 |
Motacilla aguimp | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 |
Nilaus afer | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Oriolus auratus | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 3 | 5.6 | 0.7 |
Oriolus larvatus | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Passer diffusus | 19 | 35.2 | 5.2 | 12 | 22.2 | 3.0 |
Phoeniculus purpureus | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 |
Phyllastrephus terrestris | 10 | 18.5 | 2.7 | 7 | 13 | 1.7 |
Ploceus ocularis | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Ploceus velatus | 7 | 13 | 1.9 | 14 | 25.9 | 3.5 |
Ploceus xanthops | 3 | 5.6 | 0.8 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Ploceus xanthopterus | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 | 3 | 5.6 | 0.7 |
Podica senegalensis | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.1 |
Pogoniulus chrysoconus | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Poicephalus meyeri | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Polyboroides typus | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.1 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.1 |
Prinia flavicans | 8 | 14.8 | 2.2 | 4 | 7.4 | 1.0 |
Prionops retzii | 1? | 1.9 | 0.3 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Pycnonotis tricolor | 43 | 79.6 | 11.8 | 49 | 90.7 | 12.2 |
Rhinopomastus cyanomelas | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.1 |
Scopus umbretta | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Streptopelia capicola | 13 | 24.1 | 3.6 | 15 | 27.8 | 3.7 |
Streptopelia decipiens | 3 | 5.6 | 0.8 | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 |
Streptopelia semitorquata | 20 | 37 | 5.5 | 23 | 42.6 | 5.7 |
Streptopelia senegalensis | 26 | 48.1 | 7.1 | 26 | 48.1 | 6.5 |
Strix woodfordii | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.1 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.1 |
Sylvietta rufescens | 6 | 11.1 | 1.6 | 4 | 7.4 | 1.0 |
Tauraco schalowi | 7.5 | 13.9 | 2.1 | 5 | 9.3 | 1.2 |
Tchagra australis | 3 | 5.6 | 0.8 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Terpsiphone viridis | 3 | 5.6 | 0.8 | 5 | 9.3 | 1.2 |
Trachyphonus vaillantii | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Treron calvus | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Turdoides jardineii | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 3 | 5.6 | 0.7 |
Turdus libonyana | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Turtur afer | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1? | 1.9 | 0.0 |
Turtur chalcospilos | 8 | 14.8 | 2.2 | 11 | 20.4 | 2.7 |
Tyto alba | 1 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 1 | 1.9 | 0.2 |
Upupa africana | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 |
Uraeginthus angolensis | 21 | 38.9 | 5.8 | 29 | 53.7 | 7.2 |
Urocolius indicus | 9 | 16.7 | 2.5 | 5 | 9.3 | 1.2 |
Vanellus albiceps | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 |
Vidua chalybeata | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Zosterops senegalensis | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 | 2 | 3.7 | 0.5 |
Total | 364.5 | 678.6 | 99.9 | 403 | 750.2 | 100.0 |
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Parameter | 2013/14 | 2015/16 |
---|---|---|
Numbers and density | ||
Number of species | 91 | 101 |
Number of breeding pairs | 364.5 | 403.0 |
Overall population density (pairs/100 ha) | 678.6 | 750.2 |
Dominance | ||
Number of dominant species | 5 | 4 |
Cumulative dominance (%) | 35.4 | 31.6 |
Community dominance (DI) | 0.19 | 0.19 |
Indices | ||
Shannon’s Diversity Index (H’) | 3.86 | 3.76 |
Simpson’s Diversity Index (D) | 0.97 | 0.96 |
Pielou’s Evenness Index (J’) | 0.85 | 0.82 |
Guild | Percentage of Pairs | Percentage of Species | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
2013/14 | 2015/16 | 2013/14 | 2015/16 | |
Feeding | ||||
Granivores | 37.1 | 35.0 | 17.2 | 16.3 |
Insectivores | 30.5 | 33.2 | 47.3 | 46.2 |
Frugivores | 26.9 | 25.6 | 17.2 | 17.3 |
Carnivores | 2.3 | 2.6 | 8.6 | 10.6 |
Other | 1.9 | 2.5 | 7.5 | 7.7 |
Nectarivores | 1.3 | 1.1 | 2.2 | 1.9 |
Nesting | ||||
Trees/shrubs | 76.6 | 75.8 | 69.2 | 59.8 |
Holes | 10.0 | 10.7 | 20.9 | 23.4 |
Buildings | 7.6 | 7.6 | 4.4 | 7.5 |
Herbaceous vegetation | 5.8 | 6.6 | 5.5 | 9.3 |
Ground | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Habitat | ||||
Forest | 34.0 | 34.4 | 30.8 | 32.7 |
Ecotone | 59.8 | 56.3 | 53.8 | 47.5 |
Open | 7.2 | 9.3 | 15.4 | 19.8 |
Residency | ||||
Resident | 96.2 | 95.3 | 90.1 | 89.1 |
Intra-African migrant | 3.8 | 4.7 | 9.9 | 10.9 |
Habitat | Region | Annual Rainfall | No. of Species | Study Period | Study Surface | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Urbanized Riparian Forest | Zambezi | 550–600 | 113 | 2013–2016 | 54 ha | This study |
Kalahari Woodland | Zambezi | 450–550 | 88 | 2015 | 12 km | [21] |
Mopane Savanna | North-central | 400–500 | 85 | 2011–2012 | 10 km | [22] |
Koakoland Savanna | Kunene | 300–350 | 64 | 2011–2012 | 18 km | [23] |
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Kopij, G. The Effect of Rainfall on the Population Densities and Community Structure of Birds in an Urbanized Zambezi Riparian Forest. Diversity 2023, 15, 1126. https://doi.org/10.3390/d15111126
Kopij G. The Effect of Rainfall on the Population Densities and Community Structure of Birds in an Urbanized Zambezi Riparian Forest. Diversity. 2023; 15(11):1126. https://doi.org/10.3390/d15111126
Chicago/Turabian StyleKopij, Grzegorz. 2023. "The Effect of Rainfall on the Population Densities and Community Structure of Birds in an Urbanized Zambezi Riparian Forest" Diversity 15, no. 11: 1126. https://doi.org/10.3390/d15111126