Adherence to the Mediterranean Diet in Saudi Arabia and Its Association with Socioeconomic Status and Depression
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
- -
- n is the required sample size;
- -
- Z is the Z-score corresponding to the desired confidence level (e.g., for a 95% confidence level, Z ≈ 1.96);
- -
- p is the estimated prevalence;
- -
- E is the desired margin of error (expressed as a proportion).
2.2. Data Collection
2.3. Study Outcomes
2.4. Variables and Data Analysis
2.5. Ethical Considerations
3. Results
3.1. Factors Associated with Adherence to the MedDiet
3.2. Adherence to the MedDiet and Objective Material Status
3.3. Adherence to the Meddiet and Mental Health Status
3.4. Association between Adherence to the Mediterranean Diet and Chronic Diseases
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions and Prospectives
6. Limitations of This Study
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Overall n (%) | Adherent n (%) | Non-Adherent n (%) | Test | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Overall | 467 (100) | 98 (21) | 369 (79) | ||
Sex | |||||
Male | 105 (22.5) | 19 (19.4) | 86 (23.3) | 0.68 | 0.41 |
Female | 362 (77.5) | 79 (80.6) | 283 (76.7) | ||
Age group | |||||
18–25 | 197 (42.2) | 40 (40.8) | 157 (42.5) | 5.57 | 0.14 |
26–35 | 93 (19.9) | 24 (24.5) | 69 (18.7) | ||
36–45 | 85 (18.2) | 11 (11.2) | 74 (20.1) | ||
≥46 | 92 (19.7) | 23 (23.5) | 69 (18.7) | ||
Education | |||||
None | 4 (0.9) | 3 (3.1) | 1 (0.3) | 12.57 | 0.014 * |
High school | 131 (28.1) | 23 (23.5) | 108 (29.3) | ||
Graduate | 251 (53.7) | 52 (53.1) | 199 (53.9) | ||
Diploma | 39 (8.4) | 6 (6.1) | 33 (8.9) | ||
Postgraduate | 42 (9) | 14 (14.3) | 28 (7.6) | ||
Employment/occupation status | |||||
Unemployed | 3 (0.6) | 1 (1) | 2 (0.5) | 6.51 | 0.58 |
Employed | 167 (35.8) | 39 (39.8) | 128 (34.7) | ||
Student | 166 (35.5) | 36 (36.7) | 130 (35.2) | ||
Intern | 2 (0.4) | 0 (0) | 2 (0.5) | ||
Housewife | 84 (18) | 11 (11.2) | 73 (19.8) | ||
Retired | 35 (7.5) | 9 (9.2) | 26 (7) | ||
Searching for work | 7 (1.5) | 1 (1) | 6 (1.6) | ||
Graduated | 1 (0.2) | 0 (0) | 1 (0.3) | ||
Private Work | 2 (0.4) | 1 (1) | 1 (0.3) | ||
Marital status | |||||
Single | 209 (44.8) | 42 (42.9) | 167 (45.3) | 1.04 | 0.79 |
Married | 237 (50.7) | 52 (53.1) | 185 (50.1) | ||
Widowed | 3 (0.6) | 0 (0) | 3 (0.8) | ||
Divorced | 18 (3.9) | 4 (4.1) | 14 (3.8) | ||
Nationality | |||||
Saudi | 429 (91.9) | 89 (90.8) | 340 (92.1) | 0.18 | 0.67 |
Non-Saudi | 38 (8.1) | 9 (9.2) | 29 (7.9) | ||
Province | |||||
Southern | 63 (13.5) | 21 (21.4) | 42 (11.4) | 8.46 | 0.08 |
Northern | 35 (7.5) | 4 (4.1) | 31 (8.4) | ||
Central | 25 (5.4) | 4 (4.1) | 21 (5.7) | ||
Western | 252 (54) | 52 (53.1) | 200 (54.2) | ||
Eastern | 92 (19.7) | 17 (17.3) | 75 (20.3) | ||
Smoking | 102 (21.8) | 24 (24.5) | 78 (21.1) | 0.51 | 0.47 |
Exercise | |||||
Do not exercise | 234 (50.1) | 34 (34.7) | 200 (54.2) | 12.08 | 0.007 * |
Once per week | 86 (18.4) | 22 (22.4) | 64 (17.3) | ||
Twice per week | 66 (14.1) | 19 (19.4) | 47 (12.7) | ||
≥3 times per week | 81 (17.3) | 23 (23.5) | 58 (15.7) | ||
BMI (kg/m2), mean ± SD | 25.56 ± 0.27 | 25.49 ± 0.53 | 25.57 ± 0.32 | 0.12 | 0.90 |
Variables | Overall n (%) | Adherent n (%) | Non-Adherent n (%) | Test | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Home type | |||||
Villa | 152 (32.5) | 30 (30.6) | 122 (33.1) | 9.10 | 0.11 |
Apartment | 168 (36) | 30 (30.6) | 138 (37.4) | ||
Traditional House | 105 (22.5) | 30 (30.6) | 75 (20.3) | ||
Floor in Traditional House | 40 (8.6) | 7 (7.1) | 33 (8.9) | ||
Duplex | 1 (0.2) | 1 (1) | 0 (0) | ||
Rented Apartment | 1 (0.2) | 0 (0) | 1 (0.3) | ||
Tenure of housing | |||||
Owned | 342 (73.2) | 73 (74.5) | 269 (72.9) | 3.60 | 0.16 |
Rented | 112 (24) | 25 (25.5) | 87 (23.6) | ||
Provided | 13 (2.8) | 0 (0) | 13 (3.5) | ||
Car ownership | |||||
No car | 249 (53.3) | 51 (52) | 198 (53.7) | 0.35 | 0.83 |
One car | 155 (33.2) | 32 (32.7) | 123 (33.3) | ||
Two or more cars | 63 (13.5) | 15 (15.3) | 48 (13) | ||
Phone ownership | 447 (95.7) | 93 (94.9) | 354 (95.9) | 0.20 | 0.65 |
TV ownership | 370 (79.2) | 87 (88.8) | 283 (76.7) | 6.86 | 0.009 * |
PC ownership | 356 (76.2) | 81 (82.7) | 275 (74.5) | 2.82 | 0.09 |
Internet | 377 (80.7) | 74 (75.5) | 303 (82.1) | 2.17 | 0.14 |
Satellite | 84 (18) | 19 (19.4) | 65 (17.6) | 0.16 | 0.68 |
Video games | 137 (29.3) | 26 (26.5) | 111 (30.1) | 0.47 | 0.49 |
Video player | 83 (17.8) | 15 (15.3) | 68 (18.4) | 0.51 | 0.47 |
Library | 124 (26.6) | 25 (25.5) | 99 (26.9) | 0.08 | 0.78 |
Total | Adhered | Did Not Adhere | Test | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | |||
MEDAS | 5.74 ± 0.13 | 10.45 ± 0.06 | 4.49 ± 0.07 | 40.43 | <0.001 * |
PHQ-9 | 7.89 ± 0.29 | 6.16 ± 0.68 | 8.35 ± 0.31 | 3.12 | 0.002 * |
PHQ-9 Grading | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | Test | p |
Non-Minimal (0–4) | 161 (34.5) | 51 (52) | 110 (29.8) | 18.46 | <0.001 * |
Mild (5–9) | 143 (30.6) | 24 (24.5) | 119 (32.2) | ||
Moderate (10–14) | 90 (19.3) | 10 (10.2) | 80 (21.7) | ||
Moderately Severe (15–19) | 48 (10.3) | 8 (8.2) | 40 (10.8) | ||
Severe (20–27) | 25 (5.4) | 5 (5.1) | 20 (5.4) |
Variables | Overall n (%) | Adherent n (%) | Non-Adherent n (%) | Test | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Presence of Chronic Disease | |||||
No | 371 (79.4) | 79 (80.6) | 292 (79.1) | 7.20 | 0.10 |
Yes | 96 (20.6) | 19 (19.4) | 77 (20.9) | ||
Type of chronic disease | |||||
Diabetes Mellitus (DM) | 19 (4.1) | 2 (2) | 17 (4.6) | 14.13 | 0.74 |
Gestational Diabetes | 1 (0.2) | 1 (1) | 0 (0) | ||
Hypertension (HTN) | 17 (3.6) | 5 (5.1) | 12 (3.3) | ||
DM, HTN, and Hyperlipidemia | 13 (2.8) | 4 (4.1) | 9 (2.4) | ||
Chronic Heart Disease | 3 (0.6) | 1 (1) | 2 (0.5) | ||
Autoimmune Disease | 9 (1.9) | 1 (1) | 8 (2.2) | ||
G6PD Deficiency | 2 (0.4) | 1 (1) | 1 (0.3) | ||
Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Polycystic Ovary Syndrome | 2 (0.4) | 0 (0) | 2 (0.5) | ||
Rheumatoid Arthritis, Knee Affection, Psoriasis, Anemia, and Depression | 1 (0.2) | 0 (0) | 1 (0.3) | ||
Asthma and Sinusitis | 3 (0.6) | 0 (0) | 3 (0.8) | ||
Thyroid Disease | 4 (0.9) | 0 (0) | 4 (1.1) |
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Alnabulsi, M.; Imam, A.A.; Alawlaqi, A.A.; Alhawaj, F.H.; Jamjoom, G.F.; Alsaeidi, L.D.; Hassan, F.E.-S.; Ansari, S.A. Adherence to the Mediterranean Diet in Saudi Arabia and Its Association with Socioeconomic Status and Depression. Medicina 2024, 60, 642. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina60040642
Alnabulsi M, Imam AA, Alawlaqi AA, Alhawaj FH, Jamjoom GF, Alsaeidi LD, Hassan FE-S, Ansari SA. Adherence to the Mediterranean Diet in Saudi Arabia and Its Association with Socioeconomic Status and Depression. Medicina. 2024; 60(4):642. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina60040642
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlnabulsi, Majed, Ahmad Abdullah Imam, Atheer Ahmed Alawlaqi, Fatimah Hussain Alhawaj, Ghazal Fareed Jamjoom, Lina Dakhil Alsaeidi, Fatma El-Sayed Hassan, and Shakeel Ahmed Ansari. 2024. "Adherence to the Mediterranean Diet in Saudi Arabia and Its Association with Socioeconomic Status and Depression" Medicina 60, no. 4: 642. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina60040642