Exposure to Heavy Metals in Electronic Waste Recycling in Thailand
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Sites
2.2. Study Design and Population
2.3. Environmental and Biological Sample Collection and Analysis
2.3.1. House Dust and Airborne Dust Collection and Analysis
2.3.2. Blood and Urine Sample Collection
2.3.3. Analysis of Heavy Metals
2.3.4. Questionnaires
2.4. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. General Characteristics of Study Subjects
3.2. Occupational and Environmental Factors Related to E-Waste Handling
3.3. Heavy Metal Concentrations in House Dust and Airborne Dust of E-Waste and Non-E-Waste Related House
3.4. Heavy Metal Concentrations in House Dust and Airborne Dust Stratified by Village
3.5. Heavy Metal. Levels in Blood and Urine
3.6. Association with Asthma
4. Discussion
4.1. Heavy Metal Concentrations in Air and Dust
4.2. Heavy Metal. Concentrations in Blood and Urine
4.3. Association with Asthma
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Demographic Characteristic | BanKok | BanKlang | Total | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Asthma (n = 42) | Non-Asthma (n = 42) | Asthma (n = 9) | Non- Asthma (n = 9) | Asthma (n = 51) | Non- Asthma (n = 51) | |
Age (years) | ||||||
24–46 | 14 | 14 | 1 | 0 | 15 | 14 |
47–68 | 25 | 25 | 7 | 8 | 32 | 33 |
≥ 68 | 3 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 |
Mean ± SD | 51.5 ± 12.1 | 51.5 ± 11.3 | 58.8 ± 6.8 | 57.8 ± 8.6 | 52.8 ± 11.6 | 52.8 ± 11.0 |
Gender | ||||||
Male | 17 | 18 | 4 | 3 | 21 | 21 |
Female | 25 | 24 | 5 | 6 | 30 | 30 |
Education | ||||||
Primary | 34 | 33 | 6 | 7 | 40 | 40 |
Secondary | 1 | 5 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 6 |
High school | 7 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 8 | 5 |
Income (unit: Thai Baht) | ||||||
1000–5699 | 22 | 31 | 6 | 5 | 28 | 36 |
5700–10,399 | 18 | 11 | 3 | 3 | 21 | 14 |
≥ 10,400 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 0 |
Mean ± SD | 6095.2 ± 3621.1 | 4542.9 ± 2474.6 | 4433.3 ± 3651.0 | 6444.4 ± 4186.6 | 5801.9 ± 3646.2 | 4878.4 ± 2891.7 |
Smoking | ||||||
None | 33 | 30 | 7 | 5 | 40 | 35 |
Ex-smoke | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 4 |
Smoker | 8 | 10 | 1 | 2 | 9 | 12 |
Frequency of asthma symptom | ||||||
1 time per week | 4 | - | 2 | - | 6 | - |
1 time per month | 10 | - | 2 | - | 12 | - |
1 time per six months | 28 | - | 5 | - | 33 | - |
E-Waste Related House (46) | Non-E-Waste Related House (56) | p | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Range | Mean ± SD | Median IQR | Range | Mean ± SD | Median IQR | ||
House dust (mg/kg) | |||||||
Cr | ND–6.33 | 1.69 ± 1.29 | 1.52 | 0.02–5.87 | 0.99 ± 1.05 | 0.94 | 0.000 |
Hg | ND–1.04 | 0.09 ± 0.20 | 0.10 | ND–0.79 | 0.04 ± 0.11 | 0.04 | 0.077 |
Ni | ND–7.88 | 1.46 ± 1.42 | 1.23 | ND–12.00 | 0.92 ± 1.61 | 0.79 | 0.005 |
Pb | ND–79.27 | 7.53 ± 13.46 | 6.94 | ND–16.93 | 3.00 ± 3.86 | 0.94 | 0.001 |
Air dust (µg/m3) | |||||||
Cr | ND–0.13 | 0.03 ± 0.03 | 0.03 | ND–0.14 | 0.03 ± 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.318 |
Hg | ND–0.25 | 0.14 ± 0.06 | 0.09 | ND–0.26 | 0.11 ± 0.07 | 0.12 | 0.013 |
Ni | ND–0.11 | 0.03 ± 0.03 | 0.05 | ND–0.13 | 0.03 ± 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.842 |
Pb | ND–1.66 | 0.09 ± 0.25 | 0.11 | ND–0.23 | 0.06 ± 0.07 | 0.12 | 0.620 |
BanKok (84) | BanKlang (18) | p | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Range | Mean ± SD | Median IQR | Range | Mean ± SD | Median IQR | ||
House dust (mg/kg) | |||||||
Cr | ND–6.33 | 1.51 ± 1.24 | 1.56 | 0.06–1.11 | 0.37 ± 0.30 | 0.40 | 0.000 |
Hg | ND–1.04 | 0.07 ± 0.17 | 0.08 | ND–0.10 | 0.02 ± 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.328 |
Ni | ND–12.00 | 1.32 ± 1.65 | 1.11 | ND–1.55 | 0.45 ± 0.42 | 0.51 | 0.000 |
Pb | ND–79.27 | 5.86 ± 10.49 | 6.49 | ND–5.43 | 1.24 ± 1.66 | 2.09 | 0.000 |
Air dust (µg/m3) | |||||||
Cr | ND–0.14 | 0.03 ± 0.04 | 0.05 | ND–0.06 | 0.01 ± 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.001 |
Hg | ND–0.26 | 0.14 ± 0.06 | 0.09 | ND–0.12 | 0.05 ± 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.000 |
Ni | ND–0.13 | 0.04 ± 0.04 | 0.06 | ND | ND | ND | 0.000 |
Pb | ND–1.66 | 0.09 ± 0.19 | 1.24 | ND–0.12 | 0.01 ± 0.03 | ND | 0.000 |
Asthma (51) | Non Asthma (51) | p | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Range | Mean ± SD | Median IQR | Range | Mean ± SD | Median IQR | ||
House dust (mg/kg) | |||||||
Cr | ND–6.33 | 1.31 ± 1.23 | 1.35 | 0.03–5.87 | 1.30 ± 1.21 | 1.48 | 0.894 |
Hg | ND–0.79 | 0.06 ± 0.16 | 0.07 | ND–1.04 | 0.07 ± 0.16 | 0.08 | 0.944 |
Ni | ND–4.60 | 1.02 ± 0.87 | 0.87 | ND–12.00 | 1.31 ± 1.99 | 1.41 | 0.671 |
Pb | ND–23.47 | 3.83 ± 4.64 | 4.64 | ND–79.27 | 6.26 ± 12.76 | 6.00 | 0.955 |
Air dust (µg/m3) | |||||||
Cr | ND–0.14 | 0.03 ± 0.03 | 0.05 | ND–0.13 | 0.02 ± 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.049 |
Hg | 0.02–0.25 | 0.13 ± 0.07 | 0.13 | ND–0.26 | 0.12 ± 0.07 | 0.08 | 0.651 |
Ni | ND–0.13 | 0.03 ± 0.03 | 0.06 | ND–0.13 | 0.03 ± 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.294 |
Pb | ND–0.23 | 0.07 ± 0.07 | 0.12 | ND–1.66 | 0.08 ± 0.23 | 0.12 | 0.629 |
Heavy Metal in Biological Sample Heading | Asthma (51) | Non Asthma (51) | p | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Range | Mean ± SD | Median IQR | Range | Mean ± SD | Median IQR | ||
Blood Pb (µg/dL) | 0.89–8.50 | 4.80± 1.97 | 3.14 | 1.61–9.67 | 4.83 ± 2.16 | 3.23 | 0.857 * |
Urinary Cr (µg/g creatinine) | ND–4.99 | 0.69 ± 0.99 | 0.53 | 0.06–5.03 | 0.71 ± 0.89 | 0.64 | 0.410 ** |
Urinary Hg (µg/g creatinine) | 0.07–52.64 | 3.69± 8.60 | 1.51 | 0.31–24.16 | 3.06 ± 4.43 | 1.81 | 0.933 ** |
Urinary Ni (µg/g creatinine) | 0.73–29.82 | 5.63 ± 6.66 | 3.33 | 0.25–99.96 | 6.81 ± 14.44 | 3.76 | 0.960 ** |
Heavy Metal in Biological Sample | E-Waste (46) | Non E-Waste (56) | p | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Range | Mean ± SD | Median IQR | Range | Mean ± SD | Median IQR | ||
Blood Pb (µg/dL) | 0.89–9.67 | 4.69 ± 2.16 | 3.24 | 1.94–9.41 | 4.91± 1.90 | 3.11 | 0.749 * |
Urinary Cr (µg/g creatinine) | 0.02–5.03 | 0.71 ±1.05 | 0.52 | 0.06–4.51 | 0.69 ± 0.84 | 0.59 | 0.574 ** |
Urinary Hg (µg/g creatinine) | 0.07–52.64 | 4.64 ± 9.36 | 2.29 | 0.25–24.16 | 2.34 ± 3.35 | 1.04 | 0.382 * |
Urinary Ni (µg/g creatinine) | 0.44–99.96 | 8.34 ± 15.87 | 4.99 | 0.25–23.54 | 4.48 ± 4.53 | 2.91 | 0.352 ** |
Heavy Metal in Biological Sample | BanKok (84) | BanKlang (18) | p | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Range | Mean ± SD | Median IQR | Range | Mean ± SD | Median IQR | ||
Blood Pb (µg/dL) | 0.89–9.67 | 4.70 ± 2.11 | 3.27 | 2.74–7.98 | 5.34± 1.39 | 1.68 | 0.608 * |
Urinary Cr (µg/g creatinine) | ND–5.03 | 0.68 ±0.99 | 0.49 | 0.15–2.54 | 0.80 ± 0.64 | 0.75 | 0.040 ** |
Urinary Hg (µg/g creatinine) | 0.07–52.64 | 3.78 ± 7.45 | 1.86 | 0.33–3.36 | 1.50 ± 0.73 | 1.05 | 0.2260 ** |
Urinary Ni (µg/g creatinine) | 0.30–99.96 | 6.48 ± 12.16 | 3.57 | 0.25–23.54 | 4.99 ± 5.55 | 4.47 | 0.629 ** |
Variables | Dependent Variables | p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Asthma (%) | Non Asthma (%) | |||
Subject characteristics | ||||
Age group (years) | ||||
24–46.99 | 14 | 16 | 0.907 | |
47–68.99 | 33 | 31 | ||
≥69 | 4 | 4 | ||
Income (Thai baht) | ||||
1000–5699 | 28 | 35 | 0.236 | |
5700–10,399 | 22 | 14 | ||
≥10,400 | 1 | 2 | ||
Education | ||||
Primary | 41 | 39 | 0.405 | |
Higher than primary | 40 | 12 | ||
Smoking behavior | ||||
None smoker | 40 | 37 | 0.730 | |
Ex-smoker | 2 | 4 | ||
Smoker | 9 | 10 | ||
Occupational factors | ||||
Current work | ||||
Related to E-waste | 26 | 20 | 0.233 | |
Not related to E-waste | 25 | 31 | ||
Position in E-waste activity | ||||
Employee | 12 | 10 | 0.683 | |
Registered owner | 3 | 2 | ||
Non registered owner | 11 | 8 | ||
Not related to E-waste | 25 | 31 | ||
Work hours (Hours per day) | ||||
1–2.99 | 8 | 11 | 0.736 | |
2–5.99 | 18 | 16 | ||
≥6 | 25 | 24 | ||
Years of work | ||||
1–2.99 | 30 | 31 | 0.035 | |
3–5.99 | 7 | 12 | ||
≥6 | 14 | 8 | ||
Family member works in e-waste activity | ||||
yes | 22 | 13 | 0.061 | |
no | 29 | 38 | ||
House beside e-waste shop | ||||
yes | 16 | 12 | 0.375 | |
no | 35 | 35 | ||
House cleaning | ||||
7 days per week | 26 | 24 | 0.912 | |
2–3 days per week | 18 | 20 | ||
1 day per week | 7 | 7 | ||
Kitchen in E-waste related activities area | ||||
yes | 9 | 3 | 0.065 | |
no | 42 | 48 | ||
Blood lead level (µg/dL) | ||||
0.89–5.29 | 28 | 31 | 0.574 | |
≥5.30 | 23 | 20 | ||
Urinary chromium (µg/g creatinine) | ||||
0.06–2.59 | 49 | 49 | 1.000 | |
≥2.60 | 2 | 2 | ||
Urinary nickel (µg/g creatinine) | ||||
0.30–33.39 | 51 | 49 | 0.361 | |
33.40–66.49 | 0 | 1 | ||
≥66.50 | 0 | 1 | ||
Urinary mercury (µg/g creatinine) | ||||
0.07–29.99 | 49 | 51 | 0.153 | |
≥30 | 2 | 0 |
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Kuntawee, C.; Tantrakarnapa, K.; Limpanont, Y.; Lawpoolsri, S.; Phetrak, A.; Mingkhwan, R.; Worakhunpiset, S. Exposure to Heavy Metals in Electronic Waste Recycling in Thailand. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2996. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17092996
Kuntawee C, Tantrakarnapa K, Limpanont Y, Lawpoolsri S, Phetrak A, Mingkhwan R, Worakhunpiset S. Exposure to Heavy Metals in Electronic Waste Recycling in Thailand. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(9):2996. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17092996
Chicago/Turabian StyleKuntawee, Chalermkhwan, Kraichat Tantrakarnapa, Yanin Limpanont, Saranath Lawpoolsri, Athit Phetrak, Rachaneekorn Mingkhwan, and Suwalee Worakhunpiset. 2020. "Exposure to Heavy Metals in Electronic Waste Recycling in Thailand" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 9: 2996. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17092996