Exhaust Emissions from Plug-in and HEV Vehicles in Type-Approval Tests and Real Driving Cycles
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. The Configurations of Hybrid Vehicles
- Power-split hybrid—in a power-split hybrid drive, there are two power sources: EM and ICE; the power from these two sources can be shared to drive the wheels via a power split device; the ratio can be from 100% for the CE to 100% for the EM, or anything in between; the ICE can act as a generator charging the batteries [23,24,25,26,27].
1.2. Tests of Hybrid Vehicles
1.3. Research on Hybrid Vehicles
2. Emission of Hybrid Vehicles
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Research Methodology
3.2. Vehicles Tested
3.3. Laboratory Test
3.4. Real Driving Emission
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Results in WLTC
4.1.1. Test Conditions
4.1.2. Measurement of the Concentration of Polluting Compounds
4.1.3. Comparison of Results in the Phases of the WLTC Test
- Relative to on-road CO2 emissions: phase 4 (57%) and phase 3 (38%) have the largest share;
- Relative to on-road CO emissions: phase 3 (47%) and phase 4 (37%) have the largest share;
- Relative to on-road NOx emissions: phase 2 (68%) and phase 4 (17%) account for the largest share;
- Relative to on-road emissions of THC: the largest shares are phase 2 (62%) and phase 3 (26%);
- Relative to on-road PN emissions: the largest shares are phase 3 (56%) and phase 4 (24%);
- Relative to mileage fuel consumption: phase 4 (57%) and phase 3 (38%) account for the largest share.
- Relative to on-road CO2 emissions: phase 4 of the test has the largest share (40%), and phase 1 has the smallest share (11%); phases 2 and 3 have shares of 22% and 27%, respectively;
- Relative to on-road CO emissions: the highest share is attributable to phase 1 of the test (41%), and the lowest to phase 3 (14%); phases 2 and 4 account for 25% and 20%, respectively. The main influence on such values in phase 1 is due to engine start-up and catalytic reactor inefficiency. Conversely, the increase in the share in phase 4 is due to the increase in engine load and vehicle speed, i.e., excess of exhaust gases, and possibly too small a volume of the catalytic reactor;
- Relative to on-road NOx emissions: phase 1 of the test has the largest share (85%) and phase 3 the smallest share (1%); phases 2 and 4 have a share of 7% each; the main influence on such values in phase 1 is engine start-up and lack of efficiency of NOx reduction in the catalytic reactor;
- Relative to on-road THC emissions: phase 1 of the test has the largest share (91%) and phase 3 the smallest share (1%); phases 2 and 4 have a share of 6% and 2%. The main impact on such values in phase 1 is due to engine start-up and the significant inefficiency of hydrocarbon oxidation in the catalytic reactor; however, the efficiency of hydrocarbon oxidation in phase 4 of the WLTC test was found to be higher than that of carbon monoxide oxidation;
- Relative to the number of NSAs: phases 1 and 2 of the test account for the largest shares (54% and 44%, respectively); 98% of all particulates are emitted in these two phases;
- Relative to the mileage fuel consumption: the largest contribution is from phase 4 of the test (40%) and the smallest from phase 1 (11%); phases 2 and 3 contribute 22% and 27%, respectively; this was mainly influenced by the energy demand of the engine (increased driving speed).
4.2. Real Driving Emission Tests
4.2.1. Verification of Test Feasibility Conditions
4.2.2. Comparison of Plug-in and HEV Vehicles under Road Test Conditions
4.2.3. Comparison of Emission Results in the WLTC and RDE Test
5. Conclusions
- Performing WLTC tests with the assumption that the tests on a chassis dynamometer take place under repeatable conditions—the test results are transferable to other (similar) hybrid vehicles;
- In RDE, the conditions do not allow for free variation of the test conditions—the feasibility conditions must be fulfilled and the criteria defined by their acceptable ranges. The state of charge in plug-in vehicles is arbitrary. The initial state of charge will determine the test results, and the knowledge of the initial state of charge is often decisive for the economic operation of such vehicles—this issue has also been raised in other studies [92,93,94].
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
a | Acceleration Vehicle |
b | Road Exhaust Emission |
BEV | Battery Electric Vehicle |
CF | Conformity Factor |
E | Exhaust Emission Rate |
EM | Electric Motor |
EV | Electric Vehicle |
FC | Fuel Consumption |
GNG | Generalized Reduced Gradient |
h | Driving Test Altitude |
HEV | Hybrid Electric Vehicle |
ICE | Internal Combustion Engines |
M | Motorway |
NEDC | New European Driving Cycle |
PEMS | Portable Emission Measurement System |
PHEV | Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle |
PN | Particle number |
R | Rural |
RDE | Real Driving Emissions |
RPA | Relative Positive Acceleration |
S | Distance |
t | Time |
u | Share |
U | Urban |
v | Vehicle Velocity |
WLTC | Worldwide-harmonized Light duty Vehicles Test Cycle |
WLTP | Worldwide-harmonized Light duty Vehicles Test Procedure |
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Component | Units | Plug-in | HEV |
---|---|---|---|
ICE volume | dm3 | 1.8 | 1.8 |
ICE power | kW | 72/5200 rpm | 72/5200 rpm |
ICE torque | Nm | 142/3600 rpm | 142/3600 rpm |
EM power | kW | 53 | 53 |
EM torque | Nm | 163 | 163 |
Battery | kWh | 8.8 | 1.3 |
Vehicle weight | kg | 1536 | 1370 |
Weight/Power of vehicle | kg/kW | 21.33 | 19.06 |
Mileage | km | 35,000 | 27,000 |
Model Year | – | 2020 | 2020 |
Parameter | Requirement |
---|---|
temperature (ta) | normal range: 0 °C ≤ ta ≤ 30 ° Cupper extended range: 30 °C < ta ≤ 35 °C |
driving style | relative positive acceleration (RPA): move than RPAmin; the product of velocity and acceleration (v ∙ a+): less than v ∙ a+max (for all road conditions) |
old start | duration of the cold start period is defined from engine start to first of 5 min; total stop time during cold start < 90 s |
any vehicle stop | 0–180 s |
test requirements | 90–120 min |
urban test phase requirements | share: 29–44%; distance: >16 km; vehicle speed: 0–60 km/h; average speed: 15–40 km/h; vehicle stop: 6–30% |
rural test phase requirements | share: 23–43%; distance: >16 km; vehicle speed: 60–90 km/h |
motorway test phase requirements | share 23–43%; distance: >16 km; vehicle velocity: 90–145 km/h; vehicle velocity over 100 km/h for at least 5 min; vehicle speed over 145 km/h no more than 3% of the test phase time |
Uncertainty | NDIR Analyser Indications | NDUV Analyser Indications | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Component | Carbon Monoxide | Carbon Dioxide | Nitrogen Oxide | Nitrogen Dioxide |
measuring range | 0–8% | 0–20% | 0–2500 ppm | 0–500 ppm |
extended uncertainty of measurement | ±3% reading (or 50 ppm CO) | ±3% of reading (or 0.1% CO2) | ±3% reading (or 15 ppm) | ±3% reading (or 10 ppm) |
whichever is greater |
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Pielecha, J.; Skobiej, K.; Kubiak, P.; Wozniak, M.; Siczek, K. Exhaust Emissions from Plug-in and HEV Vehicles in Type-Approval Tests and Real Driving Cycles. Energies 2022, 15, 2423. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15072423
Pielecha J, Skobiej K, Kubiak P, Wozniak M, Siczek K. Exhaust Emissions from Plug-in and HEV Vehicles in Type-Approval Tests and Real Driving Cycles. Energies. 2022; 15(7):2423. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15072423
Chicago/Turabian StylePielecha, Jacek, Kinga Skobiej, Przemyslaw Kubiak, Marek Wozniak, and Krzysztof Siczek. 2022. "Exhaust Emissions from Plug-in and HEV Vehicles in Type-Approval Tests and Real Driving Cycles" Energies 15, no. 7: 2423. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15072423