Multiparametric Methods for Rapid Classification of Diesel Fuel Quality Used in Automotive Engine Systems
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Automotive Diesel Fuel Definitions
1.2. Automotive Diesel Fuel Components and Standards
- EU standard EN ISO 3405 [74] uses the range of temperatures for 65, 85, and 95 [% (v/v)] recovered limits.
- The EN 14214 standard of FAME contains 24 properties and refers to 32 standards of testing methods.
- The EN 590 standard of base fuel comprises 16 properties and refers to 20 standards of testing methods.
1.3. Diesel Fuel Quality Definitions and the Premise of the Work
1.4. Multiparametric Methods and Aim of the Work
2. Diesel Fuel Performance and Emission Evaluation
2.1. Head of a Measurement System Using Modern Engines
System 1 [126] | System 2 [127] | System 3 [128] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Engine parameters | number of cylinders | 4 | 4 | 4 |
cubic capacity [L] | 1.4 | 2.3 | 1.4 | |
bore × stroke [mm] | 75 × 79.5 | 88 × 94 | 73.0 × 81.5 | |
max power [kW] | 39 | 102 | 66 | |
compression ratio | 22 | 16.0 | 16.5 | |
engine control | Electric IDI | ECU | ECU | |
characteristic | mid-size car of India | Euro 6 | Euro 5 | |
Fuel tested | 2-D (D975) | B7(EN 590) | B7 (EN 590) | |
B20 | HVO | HVO (EN 15940) | ||
Test type | SOP | WLTC | SOP and NEDC | |
Measured parameters | torque | yes | yes | yes |
speed | yes | yes | yes | |
fuel consumption | yes | yes | ||
smoke and gas emissions | yes | yes | yes | |
additional | effectiveness of DOC | air intake pressure in-cylinder | ||
Selectable settings | speed | rail pressure, MIT 1 | MIT | |
loads | HP and LP EGR 2 | EGR |
2.2. Cetane Number as Multiparametric Ignition Quality Measurement Method
2.3. Combustion Research Unit and Derived Cetane Number (DCN)
2.4. Spray Formation as Multiparametric Fuel Quality Measurement Methods
2.5. Cetane Index
3. Fuel Fit for Current Use
3.1. Fuel-Fit-for-Current-Use Classifications Based on a Set of Direct Physical Parameters
System 13 [227] | System 14 [228] | System 15 [229] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Measurement chamber | technology | capillary | vessel | vessel |
volume [L] | 10−5 | 10−2 | 5 × 10−2 | |
Measurement principle | capillary action | mechanical resonance | electromagnetic resonance | |
Parameters estimated | viscosity, density, surface tension | density versus temperature | dielectric coefficients, loss tangents | |
Fuel tested | market diesel market biodiesel | market diesel | branded diesel, | |
out-of-date fuel | market biodiesel | non-branded diesel | ||
Measurement and control devices | 3× optoelectronic interface | frequency meter | vector network analyzer | |
3× LED light source | microcontroller | |||
6× optical fibers | ||||
micromechanical bed | ||||
data acquisition system | ||||
PC | ||||
Data pre-processing | demodulation and time-series recording | vibration excitation | frequency band of 8–12 GHz | |
characteristic point detection | rejection of external signals | dielectric coefficients and loss tangents measurement | ||
current data comparison with reference fuel parameters | slope estimation | |||
Fit for current use | ANN classification | threshold classification | resonant frequency assignment |
3.2. Fuel-Fit-for-Current-Use Classifications Based on Spectroscopic Measurement and Chemometric Methods
System 16 [238] | System 17 [239] | System 18 [240] | |
---|---|---|---|
Measurement chamber | cuvette | KBr liquid cell | ATR vessel with ZnSe crystal |
Measurement principle | NIR spectra | FTIR in MIR band | ATR-FTIR in MIR band |
Parameters estimated | density, viscosity, boiling point, cetane number, freezing temperature, | FAME/FAEE ratio (FT-IR), viscosity by the refractive index | carbon and oxygen in methyl carboxylate-(CO)-OCH3 concentrations |
Fuel tested | market diesel | market diesel | biodiesels made in-house 2 |
inferior diesel | biodiesels made in-house 1 | ||
Measurement and control | integrated spectrometer | integrated spectrometer | LabSolutions IR Data Collection program |
UV–VIS spectrometer | Spectragryph program | ||
refractive index (IR) meter | |||
Data processing | background subtracting and data pattern creation | integrated initial equipment calibration | background spectrum |
partial least squares regression | characteristic intensity peak wavelength and intensity detection | spectra analysis for different stages of transesterification | |
the direct orthogonal signal correction | correlation of the peak intensity with the FAME/FAEE ratio in petrodiesel | correlation analysis | |
least squares support vector machine classifications | |||
Output | fit for current use | fit for current use | transesterification progress |
3.3. Detection of Contaminations and Adulterations of Diesel Fuel
4. Fuel Stability
4.1. Diesel Fuel Oxidation Stability Measurements with Standardized Methods
4.2. Diesel Fuel Oxidation Stability Estimation with FTIR Spectroscopy Implementations
4.3. Diesel Fuel Internal Stability Estimation with Fluorescence Spectroscopy
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Abbreviation | Full Name or Definition | First Mention in Section |
---|---|---|
US | United States | Section 1.1 |
ASTM | American Society for Testing and Materials | Section 1.1 |
HSD | high-speed diesel | Section 1.1 |
LDO | light diesel oil | Section 1.1 |
EU | European Union | Section 1.1 |
B7 | EU standard for automotive fuel including 7% of biodiesel and 93% of petrodiesel | Section 1.1 |
2-D | US standard of automotive fuel | Section 1.1 |
petrodiesel | petroleum diesel | Section 1.2 |
D100 | petrodiesel | Section 1.2 |
biodiesel | fuel obtained from vegetable oil or animal fats with a transesterification process | Section 1.2 |
B100 | biodiesel | Section 1.2 |
FAAE | fatty acid alkyl esters | Section 1.2 |
FAME | fatty acid methyl esters | Section 1.2 |
FAEE | fatty acid ethyl esters | Section 1.2 |
HVO | green diesel, hydrotreated vegetable oil, or synthetic diesel | Section 1.2 |
syndiesel | HVO | Section 1.2 |
B5, B20 | contains, respectively, 5% or 20% of biodiesel, US popular fuel blend | Section 1.2 |
PAH | polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons | Section 1.2 |
2-EHN | 2-ethylhexyl nitrate | Section 1.2 |
GC | Gas Chromatography | Section 1.3 |
HPLC | High-Performance Liquid Chromatography | Section 1.3 |
NMR | Nuclear Magnetic Resonance | Section 1.3 |
MS | Mass Spectroscopy | Section 1.3 |
FTIR | Fourier Transform Infrared | Section 1.3 |
PCA | principal component analysis | Section 1.4 |
PLS | partial least squares | Section 1.4 |
HCA | hierarchical cluster analysis | Section 1.4 |
AI | artificial intelligence | Section 1.4 |
SOP | stable operating point | Section 2 |
WLTP | Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Procedure | Section 2 |
NEDC | New European Driving Cycle | Section 2 |
WLTC | Worldwide Harmonized Light-duty Test Cycle | Section 2 |
EGR | exhaust gas recirculation unit | Section 2.1 |
ECU | engine control unit | Section 2.1 |
CN | cetane number | Section 2.2 |
IDT | ignition delay time | Section 2.2 |
LHR | low heat rejection | Section 2.2 |
TPO | tire pyrolytic oil | Section 2.2 |
LGO | lemongrass oil | Section 2.2 |
B100(JSO) | biodiesel made from jatropha seed oil | Section 2.2 |
DCN | derived cetane number | Section 2.3 |
CVCC | constant volume combustion chamber | Section 2.3 |
OME | oxymethylene dimethyl ether | Section 2.3 |
SBx | syndiesel–biodiesel blends with a blend ratio of x% | Section 2.3 |
CVSC | constant volume spray chamber | Section 2.4 |
CVCO | constant volume capillary optrode | Section 2.4 |
ANN | artificial neural network | Section 2.4 |
CI | cetane index | Section 2.5 |
UV | ultraviolet | Section 3 |
VIS | visible | Section 3 |
IR | infrared | Section 3 |
NIR | near-infrared | Section 3 |
MIR | middle-infrared | Section 3 |
FIR | far-infrared | Section 3 |
LED | light-emitting diode | Section 3.1 |
PC | personal computer | Section 3.1 |
SVM | support vector machine classifications | Section 3.2 |
SCARS | stability competitive adaptive reweighted sampling | Section 3.2 |
ATR | attenuated total reflectance | Section 3.2 |
EEM | excitation–emission matrix | Section 3.2 |
PD | photodetector | Section 3.3 |
LPFG | long-period fiber grating | Section 3.3 |
IP | induction period | Section 4.1 |
OSI | oxidative stability index | Section 4.1 |
PetroOXY | method for measuring the oxidation stability of middle distillates, FAME fuels, and blends, also known as the rapid small-scale oxidation test | Section 4.1 |
RSSOT | PetroOXY | Section 4.1 |
PDSC | method for testing fuel stability based on a modification of ASTM D5483 | Section 4.1 |
OIT | oxidation induction time | Section 4.1 |
OT | oxidation temperature | Section 4.1 |
MRL | multiple linear regression | Section 4.2 |
PCR | principal component regression | Section 4.2 |
Parameter/Fuel | 2-D (D975) [16] | B7 (EN 590) [17] | FAME (EN 14214) [49] | HVO (EN 15940) [50] |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cetane number—minimum | 40 | 51 | 51 | 70 |
Test method 1 | D613 [51] | EN 15195 [52] | EN ISO 5165 [53] | EN 15195 |
Density at 15 °C [kg/m3] | 820–845 | 860–900 | 765–800 | |
Test method 1 | EN ISO 12185 [54] | EN ISO 3675 [55] | EN ISO 3675 | |
Aromaticity—maximum Test method | 35 [% (v/v)] 4 | 11 [% (m/m)] | 1 [% (m/m)] | |
D1319 [56] | EN 12916 [57] 2 | EN 12916 | ||
Viscosity at 40 °C [mm2/s] Test method 1 | 1.9–4.1 | 2.0–4.5 | 3.5–5.0 | 2.0–4.5 |
D445 [58] | EN ISO 3104 [59] | EN 14105 [60] | EN ISO 3104 | |
FAME— Test method 1 | Max. 7 [% (v/v)] 4 | Min. 96.5 [% (m/m)] 5 | 0 [%(v/v)] | |
EN 14078 [61] | EN 14103 [62] | EN 14078 | ||
Sulfur—maximum [mg/kg] Test method 1 | 15 | 10 | 10 | 5 |
D5453 [63] | EN ISO 20884 [64] | EN ISO 20884 | EN ISO 20884 | |
Water—maximum Test method 1 | 0.05 [% (v/v)] | 200 [mg/kg] | 500 [mg/kg] | |
D2709 [65] | EN ISO 12937 [66] | EN ISO 12937 | EN ISO 12937 | |
Oxidation stability Test method | 25 [g/m3] 3 | 8 [h] | 5 [g/m3] | |
EN ISO 12205 [67] | EN 14112 [68] | EN ISO 12205 | ||
Total contamination [mg/kg] Test method | Max. 24 | Max. 24 | Max. 24 | |
EN ISO 12662 [69] | EN 12662 | EN 12662 | ||
Cloud point—maximum [°C] | report 6 | −10 to −34 7 | 5 to −3 8 | −10 to −34 7 |
Test method | D2500 [70] | EN ISO 3015 [71] | EN 23015 | EN 23015 |
System 4 [146] | System 5 [147] | System 6 [148] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Engine parameters | number of cylinders | 1 | 1 | 1 |
capacity [L] | 0.510 | 0.662 | 0.662 | |
bore × stroke [mm] | 85 × 90 | 87.5 × 110 | 87.5 × 110 | |
max power [kW] | 4.4 | 4.4 | ||
compression ratio | 17.0 | 17.5 | 17.5 | |
engine control | AVL-RPEMS, | constant speed | constant speed | |
modifications | ETK7-Bosch HP-EGR | dual-fuel system | LHR dual-fuel system | |
Fuel tested | standard fuel | 2-D and 4-D (D975) | B7 (EN 590) | 2-D (D975) |
substandard fuel | TPO 1 | LGO 2 | B100 (JSO) 3 | |
Measured parameters | pressure in-cylinder | yes | yes | yes |
crank angle | yes | yes | yes | |
fuel consumption | yes | yes | ||
smoke and gas emissions | yes | yes | yes | |
torque | no | yes | yes | |
Set parameters | speed | speed | speed | |
load | intake air temperature | load | ||
quantity of premixed fuel |
System 7 [166] | System 8 [167] | System 9 [168] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Constant volume combustion chamber (CVCC) parameters | volume [L] | 43 | 12 | 0.3 |
diameter [mm] | 300 | 85 | ||
chamber heater | internal heating wire | internal heating wire | external heating | |
max. pressure [MPa] | 6 | 6 | 7.5 | |
max. temperature [K] | 900 | 1000 | 863 | |
additional | EGR simulation | |||
Injector | number of orifices | 1 | 1 | 7 |
orifice diameter [mm] | 0.1 | 0.12 | 0.16 | |
Fuel tested | standard | B100 | diesel | B7 |
substandard blends | butanol | ethanol | dimethyl ether 1 | |
Measurement devices | pressure in CVCC | yes | yes | yes |
temperature in CVCC | yes | yes | yes | |
high-speed camera | yes | yes | yes | |
temperature of fuel | yes | yes | yes | |
pressure of injection | yes | yes | yes | |
additional | ECU Schlieren imaging | ECU Schlieren imaging chemical fluorescence | ||
Selectable settings | fuel temperature at injection [K] | 303 | ||
pressure of injection [MPa] | 80, 100, 120, 140, 160 | 100 | 100 | |
additional | nitrogen pre-heating 22 kW |
System 10 [184] | System 11 [185] | System 12 [186] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Spray chamber (SC) | technology | CVSC | CVSC | CVCO |
volume [L] | 6 | 10−5 | ||
diameter | 700 [µm] | |||
heater | chamber | under capillary | ||
working gas | nitrogen | nitrogen | air | |
working pressure [MPa] | 6 | 0.5–1.5 | variable | |
working temperature [K] | 293 | 298 | 293–623 | |
Injector | number of orifices | 7 | 1 | 1 |
orifice diameter [µm] | 175 | 120 | 0.800 | |
Fuel tested | standard | market diesel 1 | market diesel 7 | premium and standard market diesels |
substandard blends | biofuel 8 | B7, out of date | ||
Measurement and control devices | pressure in SC | yes | yes | no |
temperature in SC | no | yes | optional 10 | |
high-speed camera | yes | yes | yes | |
light source | HMI lamp 2 | 150 W halogen lamp fiber coupled | LED fibbed coupled | |
pressure of injection | yes | yes | no | |
control | automated injection | data acquisition system 9 | data acquisition system 9 | |
imaging | backscattered light | Schlieren | natural light or IR temperature map | |
Data processing | background subtracting 3 | background subtracting 3 | demodulation and time series recording | |
threshold detecting 4 | threshold detecting 4 | characteristic point detection 11 | ||
edge detecting 5 | edge detecting | data pattern creation | ||
spray parameters estimating 6 | spray parameters estimating 6 | fuel classification using ANN 12 |
System 19 [277] | System 20 [278] | System 21 [279] | |
---|---|---|---|
Method name | Rancimat | PetroOxy | PDSC |
Fuel type | diesel, biodiesel | diesel, biodiesel | diesel, biodiesel |
Sample size | 3 g | 5 mL | 2 µL |
Gas and pressure | O2, 700 kPa | O2, 700 kPa | air, 1400 kPa |
Temperature | 110 °C | 140 °C | 50–350 °C |
Measured parameters | time, conductivity | time, pressure | heat flow, temperature |
Method answer | oxidation stability | oxidation stability | oxidation stability |
System 22 [285] | System 23 [286] | System 24 [287] | |
---|---|---|---|
Measurement chamber | dedicated probe from SOLVIAS | ATR probe | Petri dish |
Measurement principle | FTIR | FTIR | FTIR |
Fuel tested | marked biodiesels | biodiesel from different origins | marked biodiesels |
in-house-made biodiesels | biodiesel with antioxidants 1 | in-house-made biodiesels | |
Measurement and control | BOMEM MB160 integrated FTIR spectrometer, ABB Inc., Nanjing, China | Spectrum GX integrated FTIR spectrometer, PerkinElmer Inc., Shelton, CT, USA | Spectrum 100 N FTIR spectrometer, PerkinElmer Inc., Shelton, CT, USA |
679 Rancimat, Metrohm Inc., Herisau, Switzerland | 743 Rancimat, Metrohm Inc., Herisau, Switzerland | Rancimat—by EN 14112, Metrohm Inc., Herisau, Switzerland | |
Data processing software and methods | Matlab 7 PLS Toolbox 4.0 | Unscrambler 9.7 | Quant + |
PCA 2, PLS 3 | PLS 3, MRL 4 | PLS 3, PCR 5, | |
third-order polynomial fit | cross-validation | cross-validation | |
orthogonal signal correction | successive projection algorithm | ||
Output | oxidation stability | oxidation stability | oxidation stability |
System 25 [291] | System 26 [292] | System 27 [293] | |
---|---|---|---|
Measurement chamber | quartz cells with an optical path of 1 cm | quartz cuvette with a 1 cm pathlength | capillary to ensure no contact between the fuel and the atmosphere |
Measurement principle | the sequence of measurement and degradation | Y-type optical fiber to drive the excitation light and collect emission | fluorescence as a function of dedicated time–thermal cycles |
Parameters measured | 3D excitation–emission matrix | light intensity at the sample surface vs. time | light intensity inside sample volume vs. time |
Degradation | samples were submitted to accelerated oxidation at 110 °C, with an airflow of 10 L/h, and examined at specific time points | temperature 110 °C | temperature and UV combined cycles |
Control of degradation | Metrohm 873 Rancimat | Metrohm 893 Rancimat | EN 15751 |
Fuel tested | soy oil | in-house-made biodiesel | different market diesels; B7 |
in-house-made soy biodiesel | fuels stored for 5 and 4 years, ½ of a year, and fresh | ||
Measurement | LS55 spectrofluorometer equipped with a 150 W Xenon lamp, PerkinElmer Inc., Shelton, CT, USA | Fluorimeter, MMOptic Inc., São Carlos, Spain | HR2000+ spectrometer, Ocean Optics Inc., Orlando, FL, USA |
Excitation | 200–775 nm | diode laser at 405 nm | high-power LED at 365 nm |
Emission | 230–800 nm | 430–800 nm range | 370–700 nm |
Control | averaging results | UV source power | UV source power |
Data processing | 3D excitation–emission matrix | correlation | HCA, |
PLS regression, PCA | correlation | ||
Output | prediction of the oxidation stability | acid number estimation | permissible storage time in a dark container at room temperature |
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© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Borecki, M.; Geca, M.; Zan, L.; Prus, P.; Korwin-Pawlowski, M.L. Multiparametric Methods for Rapid Classification of Diesel Fuel Quality Used in Automotive Engine Systems. Energies 2024, 17, 4189. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164189
Borecki M, Geca M, Zan L, Prus P, Korwin-Pawlowski ML. Multiparametric Methods for Rapid Classification of Diesel Fuel Quality Used in Automotive Engine Systems. Energies. 2024; 17(16):4189. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164189
Chicago/Turabian StyleBorecki, Michal, Mateusz Geca, Li Zan, Przemysław Prus, and Michael L. Korwin-Pawlowski. 2024. "Multiparametric Methods for Rapid Classification of Diesel Fuel Quality Used in Automotive Engine Systems" Energies 17, no. 16: 4189. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164189