Performance Prediction of Cement Stabilized Soil Incorporating Solid Waste and Propylene Fiber
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experimental Programs
2.1. Materials
2.2. Mixture Design
2.3. Mechanical Tests
2.4. Machine Learning Models
2.4.1. Baseline Models
2.4.2. Back Propagation Neural Network (BPNN)
2.4.3. Random Forest (RF)
2.4.4. Beetle Antennae Search (BAS)
2.4.5. Cross-Validation
2.4.6. Performance Evaluation
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Effect of Portland Cement
3.2. Effect of C&D Waste
3.3. Effect of Polypropylene Fiber
3.4. Effect of Sodium Sulfate
4. Machine Learning Predicted Results
4.1. Prediction for UCS Performance
4.1.1. Hyperparameter Tuning
4.1.2. Performance of BAS-BPNN and BAS-RF for UCS
4.1.3. Comparison of BPNN. RF, LR, MLR, and KNN
4.2. Prediction for FS Performance
4.2.1. Hyperparameter Tuning
4.2.2. Performance of BAS-BPNN and BAS-RF for FS
4.2.3. Comparison of BPNN. RF, LR, MLR, and KNN
5. Optimal Mixture Design
6. Conclusions
- (1)
- Portland cement demonstrates outstanding enhancement of mechanical strengths through cement hydration. The maximum increase in sample strength on 28-day when the curing time and admixture amounts were 450.34% and 176.91%.
- (2)
- The C&D waste has a positive effect on both the compressive and flexural properties of the samples, with the largest increase in performance being 57.2%. A 20% C&D waste content demonstrates the best-improving effect.
- (3)
- Polypropylene fiber brings a 150.31% increase in the flexural properties of the samples. However, the increase in compressive properties is not significant.
- (4)
- Higher levels of sodium sulphate increase the mechanical properties of the cement soil by 59.61% and 69.96%, respectively. However, the 0.4% sodium sulphate fails to change the properties regularly, with a range of −14% to 32.59%.
- (5)
- The influencing factors of each variable on CSS performance are ranked in descending order as: Portland cement, polypropylene fiber, C&D waste, sodium sulfate. The mixture design of 30% cement, 20% C&D waste, 4% fiber and 0.8% is considered as the best-performed combination.
- (6)
- BPNN and RF acquired the most accurate prediction for UCS and FS, respectively. Baseline models generally are inferior to Machine Learning models with hyperparameters in mechanical strength prediction.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
ID | UCS (MPa) | FS (MPa) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
7-Day | 14-Day | 28-Day | 7-Day | 14-Day | 28-Day | |
Control 1 | 0.0876 | 0.2503 | 0.3408 | 0.1242 | 0.1403 | 0.1571 |
Control 2 | 0.4820 | 0.5676 | 0.7560 | 0.1451 | 0.2375 | 0.3003 |
Control 3 | 1.2340 | 1.7832 | 1.9160 | 0.3891 | 0.5912 | 0.8316 |
CWFS-1112 | 0.4612 | 0.3225 | 0.3783 | 0.1645 | 0.1537 | 0.1943 |
CWFS-1114 | 0.4476 | 0.3439 | 0.4128 | 0.1544 | 0.1481 | 0.1904 |
CWFS-1118 | 0.5304 | 0.4448 | 0.5220 | 0.1684 | 0.1918 | 0.2886 |
CWFS-1122 | 0.4212 | 0.3862 | 0.5092 | 0.2006 | 0.2064 | 0.3543 |
CWFS-1124 | 0.4128 | 0.4212 | 0.5544 | 0.2584 | 0.3167 | 0.3715 |
CWFS-1128 | 0.4024 | 0.4236 | 0.5544 | 0.1904 | 0.2996 | 0.3488 |
CWFS-1142 | 0.4212 | 0.3225 | 0.4320 | 0.2519 | 0.2890 | 0.3356 |
CWFS-1144 | 0.4448 | 0.4236 | 0.5728 | 0.3581 | 0.3670 | 0.5117 |
CWFS-1148 | 0.4984 | 0.4876 | 0.6208 | 0.3692 | 0.3423 | 0.4967 |
CWFS-1212 | 0.3676 | 0.4104 | 0.5116 | 0.1643 | 0.1817 | 0.2264 |
CWFS-1214 | 0.4076 | 0.3811 | 0.5116 | 0.1700 | 0.1581 | 0.2094 |
CWFS-1218 | 0.4448 | 0.4636 | 0.6316 | 0.1832 | 0.2064 | 0.2761 |
CWFS-1222 | 0.3648 | 0.3462 | 0.4556 | 0.1589 | 0.1567 | 0.1893 |
CWFS-1224 | 0.3488 | 0.3597 | 0.4664 | 0.2232 | 0.2314 | 0.2285 |
CWFS-1228 | 0.5144 | 0.5464 | 0.7272 | 0.2398 | 0.3235 | 0.3210 |
CWFS-1242 | 0.4848 | 0.4664 | 0.5892 | 0.3698 | 0.4548 | 0.4739 |
CWFS-1244 | 0.3488 | 0.4716 | 0.5568 | 0.3774 | 0.3058 | 0.4289 |
CWFS-1248 | 0.4048 | 0.5676 | 0.6980 | 0.3274 | 0.4652 | 0.5195 |
CWFS-1312 | 0.3860 | 0.4392 | 0.5836 | 0.1674 | 0.1772 | 0.2363 |
CWFS-1314 | 0.3352 | 0.4156 | 0.5436 | 0.1517 | 0.1904 | 0.1998 |
CWFS-1318 | 0.3116 | 0.3676 | 0.5276 | 0.1195 | 0.1615 | 0.2421 |
CWFS-1322 | 0.2900 | 0.3890 | 0.5196 | 0.2296 | 0.3000 | 0.2977 |
CWFS-1324 | 0.2796 | 0.3304 | 0.4984 | 0.1799 | 0.3218 | 0.3270 |
CWFS-1328 | 0.3940 | 0.5220 | 0.6556 | 0.2710 | 0.2516 | 0.3739 |
CWFS-1342 | 0.3888 | 0.4368 | 0.5596 | 0.3164 | 0.4713 | 0.3691 |
CWFS-1344 | 0.3752 | 0.4528 | 0.6020 | 0.3032 | 0.4713 | 0.5394 |
CWFS-1348 | 0.4904 | 0.5436 | 0.8048 | 0.4861 | 0.5032 | 0.4442 |
CWFS-2112 | 0.6100 | 0.6848 | 0.9860 | 0.2753 | 0.3355 | 0.3807 |
CWFS-2114 | 0.6476 | 0.8236 | 1.0316 | 0.2911 | 0.3504 | 0.3821 |
CWFS-2118 | 0.7728 | 0.8500 | 1.1804 | 0.3175 | 0.4010 | 0.4440 |
CWFS-2122 | 0.7700 | 0.8796 | 1.2392 | 0.3898 | 0.4295 | 0.4914 |
CWFS-2124 | 0.8024 | 0.8528 | 1.1512 | 0.4256 | 0.4452 | 0.6076 |
CWFS-2128 | 0.8472 | 0.9888 | 1.2312 | 0.8139 | 0.7081 | 0.6401 |
CWFS-2142 | 0.6500 | 0.6208 | 1.0524 | 0.5446 | 0.7073 | 0.7116 |
CWFS-2144 | 0.7196 | 0.7808 | 1.0552 | 0.6068 | 0.6676 | 0.6396 |
CWFS-2148 | 0.7596 | 0.8528 | 1.0820 | 0.5692 | 0.6123 | 0.8199 |
CWFS-2212 | 0.5916 | 0.5856 | 0.9380 | 0.2905 | 0.2862 | 0.3238 |
CWFS-2214 | 0.5464 | 0.6528 | 0.8872 | 0.2567 | 0.3296 | 0.3459 |
CWFS-2218 | 0.7648 | 0.7300 | 1.1596 | 0.3668 | 0.4259 | 0.4089 |
CWFS-2222 | 0.6100 | 0.7436 | 0.9916 | 0.4029 | 0.5192 | 0.4870 |
CWFS-2224 | 0.5596 | 0.6820 | 0.8528 | 0.3065 | 0.3741 | 0.4079 |
CWFS-2228 | 0.7516 | 0.8100 | 1.0820 | 0.4071 | 0.3687 | 0.5402 |
CWFS-2242 | 0.6584 | 0.7516 | 0.9008 | 0.5067 | 0.5630 | 0.8492 |
CWFS-2244 | 0.8180 | 0.8100 | 1.1432 | 0.6622 | 0.7713 | 0.7164 |
CWFS-2248 | 0.7156 | 0.8436 | 1.1196 | 0.5821 | 0.8092 | 0.8442 |
CWFS-2312 | 0.7516 | 0.8552 | 1.0820 | 0.3391 | 0.4377 | 0.5259 |
CWFS-2314 | 0.6580 | 0.9140 | 1.1404 | 0.2974 | 0.4101 | 0.4568 |
CWFS-2318 | 0.7640 | 0.9702 | 1.2020 | 0.2985 | 0.3597 | 0.4502 |
CWFS-2322 | 0.7408 | 0.8553 | 1.0768 | 0.2919 | 0.3759 | 0.4609 |
CWFS-2324 | 0.8368 | 0.8846 | 1.2128 | 0.4333 | 0.4249 | 0.5002 |
CWFS-2328 | 0.9516 | 0.9931 | 1.3404 | 0.4617 | 0.5216 | 0.5790 |
CWFS-2342 | 0.8648 | 1.0981 | 1.4608 | 0.7216 | 0.7460 | 0.7958 |
CWFS-2344 | 0.8980 | 1.0153 | 1.5008 | 0.7840 | 0.7140 | 0.7119 |
CWFS-2348 | 0.9272 | 1.1304 | 1.4364 | 0.7981 | 0.8484 | 1.2859 |
CWFS-3112 | 1.1968 | 1.4952 | 2.0340 | 0.3985 | 0.5504 | 0.6006 |
CWFS-3114 | 1.0848 | 1.4444 | 1.8388 | 0.3893 | 0.5857 | 0.6095 |
CWFS-3118 | 1.5244 | 2.1324 | 2.5880 | 0.5919 | 0.8247 | 1.0207 |
CWFS-3122 | 1.1032 | 1.4900 | 1.8232 | 0.4669 | 0.6060 | 0.7354 |
CWFS-3124 | 1.4152 | 1.7780 | 2.2816 | 0.6744 | 0.8850 | 0.8449 |
CWFS-3128 | 1.3856 | 1.8444 | 2.2148 | 0.6531 | 0.9415 | 0.9202 |
CWFS-3142 | 1.4180 | 1.7752 | 2.2256 | 1.0989 | 1.1942 | 1.6690 |
CWFS-3144 | 1.5164 | 1.7404 | 2.1032 | 1.1547 | 1.4189 | 1.4320 |
CWFS-3148 | 1.3085 | 1.9538 | 2.4336 | 1.2395 | 1.3497 | 1.3127 |
CWFS-3212 | 1.3140 | 1.6258 | 2.0976 | 0.5497 | 0.6575 | 0.7450 |
CWFS-3214 | 1.3647 | 1.5537 | 2.0656 | 0.6025 | 0.6948 | 0.8935 |
CWFS-3218 | 1.2685 | 1.4820 | 2.0148 | 0.4875 | 0.4820 | 0.7792 |
CWFS-3222 | 1.3192 | 1.7296 | 2.0284 | 0.6980 | 0.8248 | 0.8717 |
CWFS-3224 | 1.2926 | 1.7164 | 2.1592 | 0.7482 | 0.8778 | 0.9954 |
CWFS-3228 | 1.3778 | 1.7780 | 1.9804 | 0.6061 | 0.7348 | 0.8046 |
CWFS-3242 | 1.4253 | 1.7324 | 2.1456 | 1.1684 | 1.6124 | 2.0286 |
CWFS-3244 | 1.3940 | 1.7216 | 2.1376 | 0.8412 | 0.8754 | 1.2671 |
CWFS-3248 | 1.5592 | 1.8868 | 2.3720 | 1.0135 | 1.4556 | 1.6752 |
CWFS-3312 | 1.2182 | 1.7564 | 2.1592 | 1.2259 | 0.7466 | 0.8835 |
CWFS-3314 | 1.3085 | 1.6284 | 2.3084 | 0.5386 | 0.7910 | 0.9581 |
CWFS-3318 | 1.0819 | 1.4632 | 1.8712 | 0.4022 | 0.5725 | 0.6951 |
CWFS-3322 | 1.1595 | 1.1056 | 1.7780 | 0.6079 | 0.6103 | 0.8183 |
CWFS-3324 | 1.0448 | 1.4128 | 1.5808 | 0.5543 | 0.5529 | 0.7040 |
CWFS-3328 | 1.4020 | 1.4100 | 1.9072 | 0.4953 | 0.6974 | 0.7057 |
CWFS-3342 | 1.5276 | 1.6736 | 1.9560 | 0.8984 | 1.2113 | 1.4504 |
CWFS-3344 | 1.2368 | 1.9432 | 1.7964 | 1.2807 | 1.2696 | 1.3083 |
CWFS-3348 | 1.9296 | 2.2656 | 2.6572 | 1.2370 | 1.1690 | 1.5334 |
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Soil Properties | Value |
---|---|
Specific gravity | 2.69 |
Liquid limit (%) | 38.87 |
Plastic limit (%) | 21.55 |
Plasticity index | 17.32 |
Maximum dry unit weight (kN/m3) | 1.51 |
Optimum moisture content (%) | 25.37 |
Polypropylene Fiber Properties | Value |
---|---|
Diameter (μm) | 10 |
Cut length (mm) | 10 |
Density (g/cm3) | 0.91 |
Tensile strength (MPa) | 486 |
Stretching limit (%) | 15 |
Acid resistance | Excellent |
Alkali resistance | Excellent |
Evaluation Index | Model | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
LR | MLR | KNN | BPNN | RF | |
RMSE (MPa) | 0.3694 | 0.2014 | 0.3242 | 0.1727 | 0.0280 |
R | 0.9598 | 0.9462 | 0.8599 | 0.9594 | 0.9685 |
Evaluation Index | Model | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
LR | MLR | KNN | BPNN | RF | |
RMSE (MPa) | 0.2386 | 0.1677 | 0.2498 | 0.1347 | 0.1583 |
R | 0.9341 | 0.9107 | 0.7678 | 0.9446 | 0.9262 |
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Zhang, G.; Ding, Z.; Wang, Y.; Fu, G.; Wang, Y.; Xie, C.; Zhang, Y.; Zhao, X.; Lu, X.; Wang, X. Performance Prediction of Cement Stabilized Soil Incorporating Solid Waste and Propylene Fiber. Materials 2022, 15, 4250. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15124250
Zhang G, Ding Z, Wang Y, Fu G, Wang Y, Xie C, Zhang Y, Zhao X, Lu X, Wang X. Performance Prediction of Cement Stabilized Soil Incorporating Solid Waste and Propylene Fiber. Materials. 2022; 15(12):4250. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15124250
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhang, Genbao, Zhiqing Ding, Yufei Wang, Guihai Fu, Yan Wang, Chenfeng Xie, Yu Zhang, Xiangming Zhao, Xinyuan Lu, and Xiangyu Wang. 2022. "Performance Prediction of Cement Stabilized Soil Incorporating Solid Waste and Propylene Fiber" Materials 15, no. 12: 4250. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15124250