Forests

1612 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Extent and Severity of Caliciopsis Canker in New England, USA: An Emerging Disease of Eastern White Pine (Pinus strobus L.)

by Isabel A. Munck, William Livingston, Kyle Lombard, Thomas Luther, William D. Ostrofsky, Jennifer Weimer, Stephen Wyka and Kirk Broders

Forests 2015, 6(11), 4360-4373; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6114360 - 24 Nov 2015

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 8881

Abstract

Caliciopsis canker is an emerging problem in Pinus growing regions of Eastern North America. The fungal disease caused by Caliciopsis pinea is associated with overstocked stands and poor sites, but few quantitative data are available. The objective of this study, therefore, was to [...] Read more.

Caliciopsis canker is an emerging problem in Pinus growing regions of Eastern North America. The fungal disease caused by Caliciopsis pinea is associated with overstocked stands and poor sites, but few quantitative data are available. The objective of this study, therefore, was to assess the extent and severity of Caliciopsis canker and to explore environmental variables associated with disease to identify areas at risk of damage. During 2014, 58 sites across New England with >75% P. strobus basal area in public lands were surveyed. Most sites (72%) had Caliciopsis canker signs or symptoms. Caliciopsis pinea was successfully identified with molecular techniques. In sites with Caliciopsis canker, 36% of the mature pines were symptomatic. Pole sized and suppressed trees were more likely to be damaged than larger trees with dominant crown positions (p < 0.05). Pinus strobus density for sites with Caliciopsis canker was 311 trees/ha (mean P. strobus stand diameter = 40 cm) compared to 220 trees/ha (mean white pine stand diameter = 43 cm) for sites without Caliciopsis canker (p = 0.1). Caliciopsis canker symptoms tended to appear more frequently in stands with excessively drained, coarse textured soils derived from glacial outwash (86%) or stands with poorly drained soils and low fertility (78%) than in stands with well drained, more fertile soils (59%) (p = 0.1). The severity of symptoms varied among soil groups and was greater for excessively drained, nutrient poor soils than for well-drained, more fertile soils (p = 0.027). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Joint IUFRO 7.02.02 “Foliage, shoot and stem diseases of forest trees” and 7.03.04 “Diseases and insects in forest nurseries” Working Parties Meeting)

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1130 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Land Use on Flow Rate Change Indices

by Ali Assani, Francis Delisle, Raphaëlle Landry and Mushombe Muma

Forests 2015, 6(11), 4349-4359; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6114349 - 24 Nov 2015

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3925

Abstract

The goal of this study was to analyze the impact of agriculture on the spatial and temporal variability of flow rate change indices from 1930 to 2008. The two indices used are the coefficient of immoderation (CI) and the coefficient of variation (CV). [...] Read more.

The goal of this study was to analyze the impact of agriculture on the spatial and temporal variability of flow rate change indices from 1930 to 2008. The two indices used are the coefficient of immoderation (CI) and the coefficient of variation (CV). Values of these two indices are higher for the L’Assomption River agricultural watershed than for the Matawin River forested watershed due to higher runoff in the former than in the latter. The difference in these values between the two watersheds is greater for winter, but it is lower for summer, when the difference in runoff between the two watersheds is strongly attenuated by the presence of crops. Regarding the temporal variability, a difference between the two watersheds is observed in the fall. For the agricultural watershed, mean values of neither index show a break in slope, while a break is observed for the forested watershed. In both watersheds, both indices are positively correlated with maximum temperature and total rainfall in winter, but only to this latter climate variable in the fall. In springtime, the two indices are negatively correlated with minimum temperature in the forested watershed, but only CV is correlated, positively, with this same climate variable in the agricultural watershed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Management and Water Resources in the Anthropocene)

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1923 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prescribing Innovation within a Large-Scale Restoration Programme in Degraded Subtropical Thicket in South Africa

by Anthony J. Mills, Marius Van der Vyver, Iain J. Gordon, Anand Patwardhan, Christo Marais, James Blignaut, Ayanda Sigwela and Barney Kgope

Forests 2015, 6(11), 4328-4348; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6114328 - 24 Nov 2015

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 8713

Abstract

Commonly cited requirements for bridging the “science‑practice divide” between practitioners and scientists include: political support, communication and experimentation. The Subtropical Thicket Restoration Programme was established in 2004 to catalyse investment in large-scale restoration of degraded subtropical thicket in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. [...] Read more.

Commonly cited requirements for bridging the “science‑practice divide” between practitioners and scientists include: political support, communication and experimentation. The Subtropical Thicket Restoration Programme was established in 2004 to catalyse investment in large-scale restoration of degraded subtropical thicket in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Political support has been strong, with the South African government investing more than US$8 million into the programme. Communication occurred regularly among a wide range of stakeholders, and a restoration experiment—comprising 12 treatments and ~300 plots—was established over an area of ~75,000 km². Despite this support, communication and experimentation, many pitfalls were encountered. For example, one restoration protocol became entrenched in the programme’s public as well as private sector operations without continual scrutiny of its efficacy. This was largely because results from the large-scale restoration experiment only emerged a decade after its conceptualization. As the programme enters its second decade there is recognition that a full range of “intelligent tinkering”—from small, rapid experiments to large, long-term experiments—needs to be planned and prescribed. The new working hypothesis is that prescribed innovation will reduce costs of restoration, increase survivorship of plants, increase income streams from restored landscapes, and promote new financing mechanisms for restoration. Full article

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751 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Endurance and Adaptation of Community Forest Management in Quintana Roo, Mexico

by Edward A. Ellis, Karen A. Kainer, José Antonio Sierra-Huelsz, Patricia Negreros-Castillo, Dawn Rodriguez-Ward and Maria DiGiano

Forests 2015, 6(11), 4295-4327; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6114295 - 23 Nov 2015

Cited by 44 | Viewed by 10124

Abstract

Despite regional deforestation threats, the state of Quintana Roo has maintained over 80% of its territory in forests. Community forest management (CFM) has played a pivotal role in forest cover and biodiversity conservation in the region. In this article, we present the institutional, [...] Read more.

Despite regional deforestation threats, the state of Quintana Roo has maintained over 80% of its territory in forests. Community forest management (CFM) has played a pivotal role in forest cover and biodiversity conservation in the region. In this article, we present the institutional, socioeconomic and environmental conditions under which community-based forest management has been consolidated in the tropical state of Quintana Roo, which occupies the eastern half of Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula. With a focus on management for timber and other market-based development strategies, we then examine the institutional and socioeconomic factors, as well as biophysical shocks, that have constrained community forestry development in the past 25 years, challenging its persistence. Following, we discuss how forest communities and institutions have responded and adapted to changing forest policies and markets as well as major environmental shocks from hurricanes and fires. CFM in Quintana Roo has shown resiliency since its institutionalization 30 years ago. Future challenges and opportunities include biodiversity conservation, carbon management through Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) initiatives, market strengthening, business management training as well as the implementation of alternative silvicultural systems, particularly to manage sustainable populations of commercial timber species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Incentives and Constraints of Community and Smallholder Forestry)

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Graphical abstract

8048 KiB

Open AccessArticle

SimpleTree —An Efficient Open Source Tool to Build Tree Models from TLS Clouds

by Jan Hackenberg, Heinrich Spiecker, Kim Calders, Mathias Disney and Pasi Raumonen

Forests 2015, 6(11), 4245-4294; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6114245 - 23 Nov 2015

Cited by 250 | Viewed by 25068

Abstract

An open source tool named SimpleTree, capable of modelling highly accurate cylindrical tree models from terrestrial laser scan point clouds, is presented and evaluated. All important functionalities, accessible in the software via buttons and dialogues, are described including the explanation of all necessary [...] Read more.

An open source tool named SimpleTree, capable of modelling highly accurate cylindrical tree models from terrestrial laser scan point clouds, is presented and evaluated. All important functionalities, accessible in the software via buttons and dialogues, are described including the explanation of all necessary input parameters. The method is validated utilizing 101 point clouds of six different tree species, in the main evergreen and coniferous trees. All scanned trees have been destructively harvested to get accurate estimates of above ground biomass with which we assess the accuracy of the SimpleTree-reconstructed cylinder models. The trees were grouped into four data sets and for each one a Concordance Correlation Coefficient of at least 0.92 (0.92, 0.97, 0.92, 0.94) and an total relative error at most ~8 % (2.42%, 3.59%, –4.59%, 8.27%) was achieved in the comparison of the model results to the ground truth data. A global statistical improvement of derived cylinder radii is presented as well as an efficient optimization approach to automatically improve user given input parameters. An additional check of the SimpleTree results is presented via comparison to the results of trees reconstructed using an alternative, published method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Ground Observations through Terrestrial Point Clouds)

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880 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Annual Cash Income from Community Forest Management in the Brazilian Amazon: Challenges for the Future

by Marie-Gabrielle Piketty, Isabel Drigo, Philippe Sablayrolles, Evandro Araujo De Aquino, Driss Pena and Plinio Sist

Forests 2015, 6(11), 4228-4244; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6114228 - 20 Nov 2015

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6407

Abstract

Community forest management (CFM) is considered an alternative way to protect forests while providing income for smallholders. Since the mid-1990s, the number of CFM projects has rapidly increased in the Brazilian Amazon, although most of them still face several difficulties. In this paper, [...] Read more.

Community forest management (CFM) is considered an alternative way to protect forests while providing income for smallholders. Since the mid-1990s, the number of CFM projects has rapidly increased in the Brazilian Amazon, although most of them still face several difficulties. In this paper, we discuss the obstacles to the financial viability of CFM in this region and propose some ways to overcome them. Based on evidence from five case studies, we assess the extent to which sustainable forest management for commercial timber production contributes to smallholder income. We show that harvesting timber only provides a limited cash income to smallholders, even though forest covers 80% of their landholding. Market access to timber is very uncertain and smallholder communities often fail to make a profit from their timber. Minimum remunerative public prices and support for timber marketing are thus needed. Simpler and more flexible procedures are required to reduce the high transaction costs of obtaining a permit and increase smallholder involvement in legal forest management for commercial purposes. Finally, a better assessment of timber potential in smallholder forest reserves through systematic inventories would be useful to avoid arousing false expectations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Incentives and Constraints of Community and Smallholder Forestry)

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602 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Distributions and Losses of Logging Residues at Clear-Felled Areas during Extraction for Bioenergy: Comparing Dried- and Fresh-Stacked Method

by Bengt Nilsson, Daniel Nilsson and Thomas Thörnqvist

Forests 2015, 6(11), 4212-4227; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6114212 - 20 Nov 2015

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4227

Abstract

It is well known that a large proportion of available logging residues intended for extraction will not reach the energy-conversion industry, because some are lost during transportation or left on the clear-felled area. However, there is little understanding of where logging residue losses [...] Read more.

It is well known that a large proportion of available logging residues intended for extraction will not reach the energy-conversion industry, because some are lost during transportation or left on the clear-felled area. However, there is little understanding of where logging residue losses occur in the supply chain. In this study, the distribution of logging residues for two methods (dried- and fresh-stacked method) to extract logging residues were studied in one clear-felled area. In addition, residue fractions were examined in a detailed comparison. Even though the fresh-stacked method left somewhat more logging residues at the clear-felled area, the differences are small between the methods. Approximately 30% of the total amount of logging residues was left behind between the harvester heaps, with an additional 10%–15% under these heaps and approximately 2%–3% beneath the windrows. The final product that was delivered to the energy-conversion industry was very similar, regardless of the extraction method used. The delivered chipped logging residues had moisture contents of 37% and 36% following fresh- and dried-stacked methods respectively, and in both cases the needle content in the processed logging residues was approximately 10%. However, the total amount of fine fractions (needles and fines) was slightly higher following dried-stacking. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Phylogenetic Relationships among Species of Phellinus sensu stricto, Cause of White Trunk Rot of Hardwoods, from Northern North America

by Nicholas J. Brazee

Forests 2015, 6(11), 4191-4211; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6114191 - 18 Nov 2015

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6614

Abstract

Species in Phellinus s.s. are some of the most important wood-decaying fungal pathogens in northern temperate forests, yet data on species incidence in North America remains limited. Therefore, phylogenetic analyses were performed using four loci (ITS, nLSU, tef1 and rpb2) with isolates [...] Read more.

Species in Phellinus s.s. are some of the most important wood-decaying fungal pathogens in northern temperate forests, yet data on species incidence in North America remains limited. Therefore, phylogenetic analyses were performed using four loci (ITS, nLSU, tef1 and rpb2) with isolates representing 13 species. Results of phylogenetic analyses using maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference revealed that eight species of Phellinus s.s. occur in North America, and include: P. alni, P. arctostaphyli, P. betulinus, P. lundellii, P. nigricans, P. tremulae and two undescribed species, P. NA1 and P. NA2. Meanwhile, P. tuberculosus, P. igniarius s.s., P. populicola, P. laevigatus s.s. and P. orienticus were not detected and appear restricted to Europe and/or Asia. The tef1 dataset outperformed all other loci used and was able to discriminate among all 13 of the currently known Phellinus s.s. species with significant statistical support. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region performed well but a high level of intraspecific variation could lead to inflated taxa recognition. Phellinus alni exhibited the broadest host range, as demonstrated previously, and appears to be the most common species in northern hardwood (Acer-Betula-Fagus), northern floodplain (Fraxinus-Populus-Ulmus) and coastal alder (Alnus) forests of North America. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Joint IUFRO 7.02.02 “Foliage, shoot and stem diseases of forest trees” and 7.03.04 “Diseases and insects in forest nurseries” Working Parties Meeting)

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1668 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantifying the Effects of Biomass Market Conditions and Policy Incentives on Economically Feasible Sites to Establish Dedicated Energy Crops

by Sandhya Nepal, Marco A. Contreras, George A. Stainback and John M. Lhotka

Forests 2015, 6(11), 4168-4190; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6114168 - 18 Nov 2015

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4811

Abstract

This study used a spatially-explicit model to identify the amount and spatial distribution of economically feasible sites for establishing dedicated energy crops under various market and policy scenarios. A sensitivity analysis was performed for a biomass market with different discount rates and biomass [...] Read more.

This study used a spatially-explicit model to identify the amount and spatial distribution of economically feasible sites for establishing dedicated energy crops under various market and policy scenarios. A sensitivity analysis was performed for a biomass market with different discount rates and biomass prices as well as policy scenarios including propriety tax exemption, carbon offset payments, and the inclusion of farmland for biomass production. The model was applied to a four-county study area in Kentucky representing conditions commonly found in the Ohio River Valley. Results showed that both biomass price and discount rate have a can strongly influence the amount of economically efficient sites. Rising the biomass price by 5 $·t⁻¹ and lowering discount rate by 1% from the baseline scenario (40 $·t⁻¹ and 5%) resulted in an over fourteen fold increment. Property tax exemption resulted in a fourfold increase, a carbon payment on only 1 $·t⁻¹ caused a twelve fold increase and extending the landbase from marginal land to farmland only slightly increase the economically efficient sites. These results provide an objective evaluation of market and policy scenarios in terms of their potential to increase land availability for establishing dedicated energy crops and to promote the bioenergy industry. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Towards Automated Characterization of Canopy Layering in Mixed Temperate Forests Using Airborne Laser Scanning

by Reik Leiterer, Hossein Torabzadeh, Reinhard Furrer, Michael E. Schaepman and Felix Morsdorf

Forests 2015, 6(11), 4146-4167; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6114146 - 18 Nov 2015

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5470

Abstract

Canopy layers form essential structural components, affecting stand productivity and wildlife habitats. Airborne laser scanning (ALS) provides horizontal and vertical information on canopy structure simultaneously. Existing approaches to assess canopy layering often require prior information about stand characteristics or rely on pre-defined height [...] Read more.

Canopy layers form essential structural components, affecting stand productivity and wildlife habitats. Airborne laser scanning (ALS) provides horizontal and vertical information on canopy structure simultaneously. Existing approaches to assess canopy layering often require prior information about stand characteristics or rely on pre-defined height thresholds. We developed a multi-scale method using ALS data with point densities >10 pts/m² to determine the number and vertical extent of canopy layers (canopy_layer, canopy_length), seasonal variations in the topmost canopy layer (canopy_type), as well as small-scale heterogeneities in the canopy (canopy_{heterogeneity}). We first tested and developed the method on a small forest patch (800 ha) and afterwards tested transferability and robustness of the method on a larger patch (180,000 ha). We validated the approach using an extensive set of ground data, achieving overall accuracies >77% for canopy_type and canopy_{heterogeneity}, and >62% for canopy_layer and canopy_length. We conclude that our method provides a robust characterization of canopy layering supporting automated canopy structure monitoring. Full article

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586 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Designing Strategies for Epidemic Control in a Tree Nursery: the Case of Ash Dieback in the UK

by Vasthi Alonso Chavez, Stephen Parnell and Frank Van den Bosch

Forests 2015, 6(11), 4135-4145; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6114135 - 18 Nov 2015

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5599

Abstract

Ash dieback is a fungal disease (causal agent Hymenoscyphus fraxineus) infecting Common ash (Fraxinus excelsior) throughout temperate Europe. The disease was first discovered in the UK in 2012 in a nursery in Southern England, in plants which had been imported [...] Read more.

Ash dieback is a fungal disease (causal agent Hymenoscyphus fraxineus) infecting Common ash (Fraxinus excelsior) throughout temperate Europe. The disease was first discovered in the UK in 2012 in a nursery in Southern England, in plants which had been imported from the Netherlands. After sampling other recently planted sites across England, more infected trees were found. Tree trade from outside and across the UK may have facilitated the spread of invasive diseases which threaten the sustainability of forestry business, ecological niches and amenity landscapes. Detecting a disease in a nursery at an early stage and knowing how likely it is for the disease to have spread further in the plant trade network, can help control an epidemic. Here, we test two simple sampling rules that 1) inform monitoring strategies to detect a disease at an early stage, and 2) inform the decision of tracking forward the disease after its detection. We apply these expressions to the case of ash dieback in the UK and test them in different scenarios after disease introduction. Our results are useful to inform policy makers’ decisions on monitoring for the control and spread of tree diseases through the nursery trade. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Joint IUFRO 7.02.02 “Foliage, shoot and stem diseases of forest trees” and 7.03.04 “Diseases and insects in forest nurseries” Working Parties Meeting)

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Open AccessArticle

Monitoring Forest Recovery Following Wildfire and Harvest in Boreal Forests Using Satellite Imagery

by Amar Madoui, Sylvie Gauthier, Alain Leduc, Yves Bergeron and Osvaldo Valeria

Forests 2015, 6(11), 4105-4134; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6114105 - 18 Nov 2015

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 6274

Abstract

In the managed boreal forest, harvesting has become a disturbance as important as fire. To assess whether forest recovery following both types of disturbance is similar, we compared post-disturbance revegetation rates of forests in 22 fire events and 14 harvested agglomerations (harvested areas [...] Read more.

In the managed boreal forest, harvesting has become a disturbance as important as fire. To assess whether forest recovery following both types of disturbance is similar, we compared post-disturbance revegetation rates of forests in 22 fire events and 14 harvested agglomerations (harvested areas over 5–10 years in the same vicinity) in the western boreal forest of Quebec. Pre-disturbance conditions were first compared in terms of vegetation cover types and surficial deposit types using an ordination technique. Post-disturbance changes over 30 years in land cover types were characterized by vectors of succession in an ordination. Four post-disturbance stages were identified from the 48 land thematic classes in the Landsat images: “S0” stand initiation phase; “S1” early regeneration phase; “S2” stem exclusion phase; and “S3” the coniferous forest. Analyses suggest that fire occurs in both productive and unproductive forests, which is not the case for harvesting. Revegetation rates (i.e., rapidity with which forest cover is re-established) appeared to be more advanced in harvested agglomerations when compared with entire fire events. However, when considering only the productive forest fraction of each fire, the revegetation rates are comparable between the fire events and the harvested agglomerations. The S0 is practically absent from harvested agglomerations, which is not the case in the fire events. The difference in revegetation rates between the two disturbance types could therefore be attributed mostly to the fact that fire also occurs in unproductive forest, a factor that has to be taken into account in such comparisons. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Fungal Pathogens Associated with White Pine Needle Damage (WPND) in Northeastern North America

by Kirk Broders, Isabel Munck, Stephen Wyka, Gloria Iriarte and Eric Beaudoin

Forests 2015, 6(11), 4088-4104; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6114088 - 12 Nov 2015

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 8559

Abstract

Eastern white pine is a crucial ecological and economic component of forests in the northern USA and eastern Canada, and is now facing an emerging problem in white pine needle damage (WPND). It is still unclear whether WPND results from one, or the [...] Read more.

Eastern white pine is a crucial ecological and economic component of forests in the northern USA and eastern Canada, and is now facing an emerging problem in white pine needle damage (WPND). It is still unclear whether WPND results from one, or the combination of several fungal pathogens. Therefore, the first objective of this study was to characterize the fungi associated with WPND in the northeastern United States and document the damage being done to mature eastern white pine as a result of repeated defoliation. To date, 22 species of fungi, either cultured from diseased pine needles or formed fruiting bodies on pine needles were identified based on morphology and sequence data. Lecanosticta acicola and a putative new species of Septorioides were the species most frequently recovered from diseased needles, in addition to needle cast fungi Lophophacidium dooksii and Bifusella linearis, two obligate fungal pathogens that were frequently observed on pine needles in the northeast, but have not been known to cause excessive defoliation of eastern white pine. A second objective was to monitor yearly the health of 63 pairs of healthy and unhealthy trees in eight affected locations throughout New England. Since 2012, affected trees are increasingly and repeatedly chlorotic and defoliated every year. Trees that were initially healthy are now exhibiting symptoms. While L. acicola appears to be the primary pathogen causing WPND, several other common needle pathogens are being more frequently observed and the role of climate change may be important in the disease ecology of WPND. These defoliation events, while once a sporadic occurrence, have now become more frequent as observed in continued crown deterioration of eastern white pine in long-term monitoring plots followed during the course of this three-year study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Joint IUFRO 7.02.02 “Foliage, shoot and stem diseases of forest trees” and 7.03.04 “Diseases and insects in forest nurseries” Working Parties Meeting)

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Open AccessCommunication

Genetic Variability and Phylogeny of European mountain ash ringspot-associated virus RNA3 and RNA4

by Jenny Roßbach, Heike Luisa Dieckmann, Theresa Büttner, Hans-Peter Mühlbach, Susanne Von Bargen and Carmen Büttner

Forests 2015, 6(11), 4072-4087; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6114072 - 11 Nov 2015

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6646

Abstract

The European mountain ash ringspot-associated virus (EMARaV) is a multipartite RNA virus of negative polarity. It infects Sorbus aucuparia (common name—rowan) trees throughout their whole distribution area in North and Central Europe. It causes mottling, chlorotic ringspots and decline of the whole plant. [...] Read more.

The European mountain ash ringspot-associated virus (EMARaV) is a multipartite RNA virus of negative polarity. It infects Sorbus aucuparia (common name—rowan) trees throughout their whole distribution area in North and Central Europe. It causes mottling, chlorotic ringspots and decline of the whole plant. Infected rowans are serious virus sources for rowans and other potential hosts. EMARaV incidence and population structure was investigated in Germany, Finland, Sweden, Scotland, and Norway. Overall, EMARaV variants from 42 rowan trees distributed in 20 different locations were studied with regard to the genetic variability of the p3- and p4-coding genome region, as well as the 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions (UTR) of RNA3. In six of the 42 analyzed samples we found much higher sequence diversities than previously reported at the amino acid level in RNA3 encoded p3 protein sequences as well as at the nucleotide level on the 5′ and 3′ UTR. The other 36 EMARaV variants confirmed the assumed conservation of the nucleocapsid protein coding region. In contrast, the p4-coding genome region showed a high conservation of both nucleotide and amino acid sequences. Both EMARaV proteins were under strong purifying selection pressure, probably acting to maintain the functional integrity of the p3 and p4 proteins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Joint IUFRO 7.02.02 “Foliage, shoot and stem diseases of forest trees” and 7.03.04 “Diseases and insects in forest nurseries” Working Parties Meeting)

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Open AccessArticle

Forest Parameter Prediction Using an Image-Based Point Cloud: A Comparison of Semi-ITC with ABA

by Johannes Rahlf, Johannes Breidenbach, Svein Solberg and Rasmus Astrup

Forests 2015, 6(11), 4059-4071; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6114059 - 10 Nov 2015

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 5880

Abstract

Image-based point clouds obtained using aerial photogrammetry share many characteristics with point clouds obtained by airborne laser scanning (ALS). Two approaches have been used to predict forest parameters from ALS: the area-based approach (ABA) and the individual tree crown (ITC) approach. In this [...] Read more.

Image-based point clouds obtained using aerial photogrammetry share many characteristics with point clouds obtained by airborne laser scanning (ALS). Two approaches have been used to predict forest parameters from ALS: the area-based approach (ABA) and the individual tree crown (ITC) approach. In this article, we apply the semi-ITC approach, a variety of the ITC approach, on an image-based point cloud to predict forest parameters and compare the performance to the ABA. Norwegian National Forest Inventory sample plots on a site in southeastern Norway were used as the reference data. Tree crown objects were delineated using a watershed segmentation algorithm, and explanatory variables were calculated for each tree crown segment. A multivariate kNN model for timber volume, stem density, basal area and quadratic mean diameter with the semi-ITC approach produced RMSEs of 30%, 46%, 25%, 26%, respectively. The corresponding measures for the ABA were 30%, 51%, 26%, 35%, respectively. Univariate kNN models resulted in timber volume RMSEs of 25% for the semi-ITC approach and 22% for the ABA. A non-linear logistic regression model with the ABA produced an RMSE of 23%. Both approaches predicted timber volume with comparable precision and accuracy at the plot level. The multivariate kNN model was slightly more precise with the semi-ITC approach, while biases were larger Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Image-Based Point Clouds for Forest Inventory Applications)

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Open AccessArticle

Two-Year Survival of Gremmeniella abietina Conidia Collected on Branches Left on the Ground after Pine Harvesting

by Gaston Laflamme and Danny Rioux

Forests 2015, 6(11), 4055-4058; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6114055 - 9 Nov 2015

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3905

Abstract

In 1972, it was reported that viable ascospores and conidia of Gremmeniella abietina, North American race, were present on dead branches up to 10 months after they were killed. In Sweden, the survival period of conidia of G. abietina, European race, [...] Read more.

In 1972, it was reported that viable ascospores and conidia of Gremmeniella abietina, North American race, were present on dead branches up to 10 months after they were killed. In Sweden, the survival period of conidia of G. abietina, European race, was reported to be over 18 months. We investigated the viability of conidia produced by G. abietina, European race, over a 2-year period in eastern Canada. Infected branches with pycnidia were left on the ground in June 2006. Branches were sampled every month during three growing seasons. Conidia germination was tested monthly and showed a very high rate of germination (76%–98%) from July 2006 to August 2007. Very few pycnidia were detected in the fall of 2007 and in May 2008. In June and July 2008, no pycnidia could be observed, the shoots being in an advanced stage of decomposition. In light of these observations, it is recommended to delay pine plantation until after two growing seasons following harvesting of diseased pine trees. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Joint IUFRO 7.02.02 “Foliage, shoot and stem diseases of forest trees” and 7.03.04 “Diseases and insects in forest nurseries” Working Parties Meeting)

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Open AccessArticle

A Comparison of Airborne Laser Scanning and Image Point Cloud Derived Tree Size Class Distribution Models in Boreal Ontario

by Margaret Penner, Murray Woods and Douglas G. Pitt

Forests 2015, 6(11), 4034-4054; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6114034 - 9 Nov 2015

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 6805

Abstract

Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS) metrics have been used to develop area-based forest inventories; these metrics generally include estimates of stand-level, per hectare values and mean tree attributes. Tree-based ALS inventories contain desirable information on individual tree dimensions and how much they vary within [...] Read more.

Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS) metrics have been used to develop area-based forest inventories; these metrics generally include estimates of stand-level, per hectare values and mean tree attributes. Tree-based ALS inventories contain desirable information on individual tree dimensions and how much they vary within a stand. Adding size class distribution information to area-based inventories helps to bridge the gap between area- and tree-based inventories. This study examines the potential of ALS and stereo-imagery point clouds to predict size class distributions in a boreal forest. With an accurate digital terrain model, both ALS and imagery point clouds can be used to estimate size class distributions with comparable accuracy. Nonparametric imputations were generally superior to parametric imputations; this may be related to the limitation of using a unimodal Weibull function on a relatively small prediction unit (e.g., 400 m²). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Image-Based Point Clouds for Forest Inventory Applications)

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Open AccessArticle

Accounting for a Diverse Forest Ownership Structure in Projections of Forest Sustainability Indicators

by Jeannette Eggers, Hampus Holmström, Tomas Lämås, Torgny Lind and Karin Öhman

Forests 2015, 6(11), 4001-4033; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6114001 - 6 Nov 2015

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 12054

Abstract

In this study, we assessed the effect of a diverse ownership structure with different management strategies within and between owner categories in long-term projections of economic, ecological and social forest sustainability indicators, representing important ecosystem services, for two contrasting Swedish municipalities. This was [...] Read more.

In this study, we assessed the effect of a diverse ownership structure with different management strategies within and between owner categories in long-term projections of economic, ecological and social forest sustainability indicators, representing important ecosystem services, for two contrasting Swedish municipalities. This was done by comparing two scenarios: one where the diversity of management strategies was accounted for (Diverse) and one where it was not (Simple). The Diverse scenario resulted in a 14% lower total harvested volume for the 100 year period compared to the Simple scenario, which resulted in a higher growing stock and a more favorable development of the ecological indicators. The higher proportion of sparse forests and the lower proportion of clear-felled sites made the Diverse scenario more appropriate for delivering access to common outdoor recreation activities, while the Simple scenario projected more job opportunities. Differences between the scenarios were considerable already in the medium term (after 20 years of simulation). Our results highlight the importance of accounting for the variety of management strategies employed by forest owners in medium- to long-term projections of the development of forest sustainability indicators. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Services from Forests)

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Open AccessArticle

Understanding the Factors Influencing Nonindustrial Private Forest Landowner Interest in Supplying Ecosystem Services in Cumberland Plateau, Tennessee

by Nana Tian, Neelam C. Poudyal, Donald G. Hodges, Timothy M. Young and Kevin P. Hoyt

Forests 2015, 6(11), 3985-4000; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6113985 - 4 Nov 2015

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 6679

Abstract

Private forests provide a range of ecosystem services for society including provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services. Sustaining the supply of such services depends on the interest of nonindustrial private forest (NIPF) landowners in managing their forests for such services. Assessing factors that [...] Read more.

Private forests provide a range of ecosystem services for society including provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services. Sustaining the supply of such services depends on the interest of nonindustrial private forest (NIPF) landowners in managing their forests for such services. Assessing factors that influence NIPF landowner intentions would be useful in identifying potential suppliers of ecosystem services and in designing and implementing outreach and education programs to elevate the interests of less interested landowners. Using data collected from a mail survey of NIPF landowners on the Cumberland Plateau of Tennessee, this study examined how landowner interest in supplying ecosystem services was influenced by socio-demographic characteristics, economic and market factors, land management objectives, and ownership motivations. To that end, a multivariate logistic regression model was employed to analyze the supply of three types of ecosystem services: carbon storage (regulating service), water quality (provisioning service), and aesthetics (cultural service). Results revealed that landowner interest in managing forests for ecosystem services were significantly related to socio-demographic factors, management and ownership characteristics, and availability of financial incentives. These findings will improve the understanding of the market segment of landowners as related to ecosystem services. The findings may facilitate the development of market protocols and outreach programs that promote payments for ecosystem services in Tennessee and elsewhere. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Services from Forests)

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Open AccessArticle

Forest Biomass Energy Resources in China: Quantity and Distribution

by Caixia Zhang, Leiming Zhang and Gaodi Xie

Forests 2015, 6(11), 3970-3984; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6113970 - 4 Nov 2015

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 11104

Abstract

As one of the most important renewable and sustainable energy sources, the forest biomass energy resource has always been the focus of attention of scholars and policy makers. However, its potential is still uncertain in China, especially with respect to its spatial distribution. [...] Read more.

As one of the most important renewable and sustainable energy sources, the forest biomass energy resource has always been the focus of attention of scholars and policy makers. However, its potential is still uncertain in China, especially with respect to its spatial distribution. In this paper, the quantity and distribution of Chinese forest biomass energy resources are explored based mainly on forestry statistics data rather than forest resource inventory data used by most previous studies. The results show that the forest biomass energy resource in China was 169 million tons in 2010, of which wood felling and bucking residue (WFBR),wood processing residue (WPR), bamboo processing residue, fuel wood and firewood used by farmers accounted for 38%, 37%, 6%, 4% and 15%, respectively. The highest resource was located in East China, accounting for nearly 39.0% of the national amount, followed by the Southwest and South China regions, which accounted for 17.4% and 16.3%, respectively. At the provincial scale, Shandong has the highest distribution, accounting for 11.9% of total resources, followed by Guangxi and Fujian accounting for 10.3% and 10.2%, respectively. The actual wood-processing residue (AWPR) estimated from the actual production of different wood products (considering the wood transferred between regions) showed apparent differences from the local wood processing residue (LWPR), which assumes that no wood has been transferredbetween regions. Due to the large contribution of WPR to total forestry bioenergy resources, the estimation of AWPR will provide a more accurate evaluation of the total amount and the spatial distribution of forest biomass energy resources in China. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Participatory Multi-Criteria Assessment of Forest Planning Policies in Conflicting Situations: The Case of Tenerife

by Montserrat Acosta and Serafin Corral

Forests 2015, 6(11), 3946-3969; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6113946 - 3 Nov 2015

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4907

Abstract

Sustainable forest planning should involve the participation of stakeholder communities in the decision-making process. This participation can help avoid the possible rejection of new planning measures. In this paper, the decision-making process to implement regulations on the use of forest tracks on the [...] Read more.

Sustainable forest planning should involve the participation of stakeholder communities in the decision-making process. This participation can help avoid the possible rejection of new planning measures. In this paper, the decision-making process to implement regulations on the use of forest tracks on the island of Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain) is analyzed. In recent years, the number of people using the island’s forest environments has notably increased, leading to conflicts between different users of the tracks; as a result, the Island Council of Tenerife is working on regulating these pathways. This paper describes the framing analysis, design, and implementation of a participatory multi-criteria approach to explore, together with stakeholders, the best policy alternatives related to forest planning and management issues of forest track use. To do this, a set of tools has been developed, consisting of institutional analysis, participatory methods, and multi-criteria assessment techniques. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Detecting Stems in Dense and Homogeneous Forest Using Single-Scan TLS

by Shaobo Xia, Cheng Wang, Feifei Pan, Xiaohuan Xi, Hongcheng Zeng and He Liu

Forests 2015, 6(11), 3923-3945; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6113923 - 30 Oct 2015

Cited by 67 | Viewed by 8602

Abstract

Stem characteristics of plants are of great importance to both ecology study and forest management. Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) may provide an effective way to characterize the fine-scale structures of vegetation. However, clumping plants, dense foliage and thin structure could intensify the shadowing [...] Read more.

Stem characteristics of plants are of great importance to both ecology study and forest management. Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) may provide an effective way to characterize the fine-scale structures of vegetation. However, clumping plants, dense foliage and thin structure could intensify the shadowing effect and pose a series of problems in identifying stems, distinguishing neighboring stems, and merging disconnected stem parts in point clouds. This paper presents a new method to automatically detect stems in dense and homogeneous forest using single-scan TLS data. Stem points are first identified with a two-scale classification method. Then a clustering approach is used to group the candidate stem points. Finally, a direction-growing algorithm based on a simple stem curve model is applied to merge stem points. Field experiments were carried out in two different bamboo plots with a stem density of about 7500 stems/ha. Overall accuracy of the stem detection is 88% and the quality of detected stems is mainly affected by the shadowing effect. Results indicate that the proposed method is feasible and effective in detection of bamboo stems using TLS data, and can be applied to other species of single-stem plants in dense forests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Ground Observations through Terrestrial Point Clouds)

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Open AccessArticle

Characterizing the Height Structure and Composition of a Boreal Forest Using an Individual Tree Crown Approach Applied to Photogrammetric Point Clouds

by Benoît St-Onge, Félix-Antoine Audet and Jean Bégin

Forests 2015, 6(11), 3899-3922; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6113899 - 30 Oct 2015

Cited by 82 | Viewed by 10675

Abstract

Photogrammetric point clouds (PPC) obtained by stereomatching of aerial photographs now have a resolution sufficient to discern individual trees. We have produced such PPCs of a boreal forest and delineated individual tree crowns using a segmentation algorithm applied to the canopy height model [...] Read more.

Photogrammetric point clouds (PPC) obtained by stereomatching of aerial photographs now have a resolution sufficient to discern individual trees. We have produced such PPCs of a boreal forest and delineated individual tree crowns using a segmentation algorithm applied to the canopy height model derived from the PPC and a lidar terrain model. The crowns were characterized in terms of height and species (spruce, fir, and deciduous). Species classification used the 3D shape of the single crowns and their reflectance properties. The same was performed on a lidar dataset. Results show that the quality of PPC data generally approaches that of airborne lidar. For pixel-based canopy height models, viewing geometry in aerial images, forest structure (dense vs. open canopies), and composition (deciduous vs. conifers) influenced the quality of the 3D reconstruction of PPCs relative to lidar. Nevertheless, when individual tree height distributions were analyzed, PPC-based results were very similar to those extracted from lidar. The random forest classification (RF) of individual trees performed better in the lidar case when only 3D metrics were used (83% accuracy for lidar, 79% for PPC). However, when 3D and intensity or multispectral data were used together, the accuracy of PPCs (89%) surpassed that of lidar (86%). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Image-Based Point Clouds for Forest Inventory Applications)

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Open AccessArticle

Aboveground Biomass Estimation Using Structure from Motion Approach with Aerial Photographs in a Seasonal Tropical Forest

by Tetsuji Ota, Miyuki Ogawa, Katsuto Shimizu, Tsuyoshi Kajisa, Nobuya Mizoue, Shigejiro Yoshida, Gen Takao, Yasumasa Hirata, Naoyuki Furuya, Takio Sano, Heng Sokh, Vuthy Ma, Eriko Ito, Jumpei Toriyama, Yukako Monda, Hideki Saito, Yoshiyuki Kiyono, Sophal Chann and Nang Ket

Forests 2015, 6(11), 3882-3898; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6113882 - 30 Oct 2015

Cited by 96 | Viewed by 9646

Abstract

We investigated the capabilities of a canopy height model (CHM) derived from aerial photographs using the Structure from Motion (SfM) approach to estimate aboveground biomass (AGB) in a tropical forest. Aerial photographs and airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data were simultaneously acquired [...] Read more.

We investigated the capabilities of a canopy height model (CHM) derived from aerial photographs using the Structure from Motion (SfM) approach to estimate aboveground biomass (AGB) in a tropical forest. Aerial photographs and airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data were simultaneously acquired under leaf-on canopy conditions. A 3D point cloud was generated from aerial photographs using the SfM approach and converted to a digital surface model (DSM_P). We also created a DSM from airborne LiDAR data (DSM_L). From each of DSM_P and DSM_L, we constructed digital terrain models (DTM), which are DTM_P and DTM_L, respectively. We created four CHMs, which were calculated from (1) DSM_P and DTM_P (CHM_PP); (2) DSM_P and DTM_L (CHM_PL); (3) DSM_L and DTM_P (CHM_LP); and (4) DSM_L and DTM_L (CHM_LL). Then, we estimated AGB using these CHMs. The model using CHM_LL yielded the highest accuracy in four CHMs (R² = 0.94) and was comparable to the model using CHM_PL (R² = 0.93). The model using CHM_PP yielded the lowest accuracy (R² = 0.79). In conclusion, AGB can be estimated from CHM derived from aerial photographs using the SfM approach in the tropics. However, to accurately estimate AGB, we need a more accurate DTM than the DTM derived from aerial photographs using the SfM approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Image-Based Point Clouds for Forest Inventory Applications)

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Open AccessArticle

Outbreak of Phoracantha semipunctata in Response to Severe Drought in a Mediterranean Eucalyptus Forest

by Stephen Seaton, George Matusick, Katinka X. Ruthrof and Giles E. St. J. Hardy

Forests 2015, 6(11), 3868-3881; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6113868 - 30 Oct 2015

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 6738

Abstract

Extreme climatic events, including droughts and heatwaves, can trigger outbreaks of woodboring beetles by compromising host defenses and creating habitat conducive for beetle development. As the frequency, intensity, and duration of droughts are likely to increase in the future, beetle outbreaks are expected [...] Read more.

Extreme climatic events, including droughts and heatwaves, can trigger outbreaks of woodboring beetles by compromising host defenses and creating habitat conducive for beetle development. As the frequency, intensity, and duration of droughts are likely to increase in the future, beetle outbreaks are expected to become more common. The combination of drought and beetle outbreaks has the potential to alter ecosystem structure, composition, and function. Our aim was to investigate a potential outbreak of the native Eucalyptus longhorned borer, Phoracantha semipunctata (P. semipunctata), following one of the most severe droughts on record in the Northern Jarrah Forest of Southwestern Australia. Beetle damage and tissue moisture were examined in trees ranging from healthy to recently killed. Additionally, beetle population levels were examined in adjacent forest areas exhibiting severe and minimal canopy dieback. Severely drought-affected forest was associated with an unprecedented outbreak of P. semipunctata, with densities 80 times higher than those observed in surrounding healthier forest. Trees recently killed by drought had significantly lower tissue moisture and higher feeding damage and infestation levels than those trees considered healthy or in the process of dying. These results confirm the outbreak potential of P. semipunctata in its native Mediterranean-climate Eucalyptus forest under severe water stress, and indicate that continued drying will increase the likelihood of outbreaks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodiversity and Conservation in Forests)

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Open AccessArticle

Does Tree Architectural Complexity Influence the Accuracy of Wood Volume Estimates of Single Young Trees by Terrestrial Laser Scanning?

by Carsten Hess, Anne Bienert, Werner Härdtle and Goddert Von Oheimb

Forests 2015, 6(11), 3847-3867; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6113847 - 30 Oct 2015

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 8203

Abstract

Accurate estimates of the wood volume or biomass of individual trees have gained considerable importance in recent years. The accuracy of wood volume estimation by terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) point cloud data may differ between individual trees due to species-specific differences in tree [...] Read more.

Accurate estimates of the wood volume or biomass of individual trees have gained considerable importance in recent years. The accuracy of wood volume estimation by terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) point cloud data may differ between individual trees due to species-specific differences in tree architecture. We selected three common and ecologically important central European deciduous tree species, which differ considerably in tree architectural complexity in early ontogenetic stages: Acer pseudoplatanus (simple), Sorbus aucuparia (intermediate) and Betula pendula (complex). We scanned six single young trees for each species (18 trees in total) under optimal scan conditions (single tree stand, leafless state, four scanning positions, high resolution). TLS-based volume estimates were derived for the total tree as well as for the two compartments; trunk and branches, using a voxel-based bounding box method. These estimates were compared with highly accurate xyolmetric (water displacement) volume measurements. Coefficients of determination between xylometric measurements and bounding box estimates were very high for total trees (R²_adj = 0.99), trunks (R²_adj = 0.99), and high for branches (R²_adj = 0.78). The accuracy of estimations for total tree and trunk volume was highly similar among the three tree species. In contrast, significant differences were found for branch volume estimates: the accuracy was very high for Sorbus aucuparia, intermediate for Betula pendula, and low for Acer pseudoplatanus. A stepwise multiple regression showed that the accuracy of branch volume estimates was negatively related to the number of the first-order branches within diameter sizes of D ≤ 5 mm and crown surface area (R²_adj = 0.61). We conclude that the accuracy in total tree and trunk volume estimates was not affected by the studied types of tree architectural complexity. The impact of the structural variability of branches and occlusion by branches was, thus, not as high as expected. In contrast, the accuracy of branch volume estimates was strongly influenced by tree architectural complexity, though not in a simple way. Because underestimations originated from different sources, the accuracy of branch volume estimates cannot be directly derived from the degree of architectural complexity. These results imply that the voxel-based bounding box method provides highly accurate total tree and trunk volume estimates, whereas further research is needed to improve branch volume estimation for young trees of different architectural types. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Ground Observations through Terrestrial Point Clouds)

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Open AccessArticle

A Bayesian Spatial Model Highlights Distinct Dynamics in Deforestation from Coca and Pastures in an Andean Biodiversity Hotspot

by Maria Alejandra Chadid, Liliana M. Dávalos, Jorge Molina and Dolors Armenteras

Forests 2015, 6(11), 3828-3846; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6113828 - 30 Oct 2015

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 8649

Abstract

The loss of tropical forests has continued in recent decades despite wide recognition of their importance to maintaining biodiversity. Here, we examine the conversion of forests to pastures and coca crops (illicit activity) on the San Lucas Mountain Range, Colombia for 2002–2007 and [...] Read more.

The loss of tropical forests has continued in recent decades despite wide recognition of their importance to maintaining biodiversity. Here, we examine the conversion of forests to pastures and coca crops (illicit activity) on the San Lucas Mountain Range, Colombia for 2002–2007 and 2007–2010. Land use maps and biophysical variables were used as inputs to generate land use and cover change (LUCC) models using the DINAMICA EGO software. These analyses revealed a dramatic acceleration of the pace of deforestation in the region, with rates of conversion from forest to pasture doubling from the first to the second period. Altitude, distance to other crops, and distance to rivers were the primary drivers of deforestation. The influence of these drivers, however, differed markedly depending on whether coca cultivation or pastures replaced forest. Conversion to coca was more probable farther from other crops and from settlements. In contrast, proximity to other crops and to settlements increased conversion to pasture. These relationships highlight the different roles of coca and pastures in forest loss, with coca tending to open up new forest frontiers, and pastures tending to consolidate agricultural expansion and urban influence. Large differences between LUCC processes for each period suggest highly dynamic changes, likely associated with shifting underlying causes of deforestation. These changes may relate to shifts in demand for illicit crops, land, or mining products; however, the data to test these hypotheses are currently lacking. More frequent and detailed monitoring is required to guide actions to decrease the loss of forest in this highly vulnerable biodiversity hotspot in the Northern Andes. Full article

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Intra-Annual Xylem Growth of Larix principis-rupprechtii at Its Upper and Lower Distribution Limits on the Luyashan Mountain in North-Central China

by Yuan Jiang, Yiping Zhang, Yuanyuan Guo, Muyi Kang, Mingchang Wang and Biao Wang

Forests 2015, 6(11), 3809-3827; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6113809 - 29 Oct 2015

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 5165

Abstract

Altitude-related climatic factors, especially temperature, are important factors that affect tree growth in mountain forest ecosystems. The aims of this study were to estimate the intra-annual radial growth differences of Larix principis-rupprechtii (L. principis-rupprechtii) between its upper and lower distribution [...] Read more.

Altitude-related climatic factors, especially temperature, are important factors that affect tree growth in mountain forest ecosystems. The aims of this study were to estimate the intra-annual radial growth differences of Larix principis-rupprechtii (L. principis-rupprechtii) between its upper and lower distribution limits, at 2740 and 2040 m a.s.l, respectively. Dynamics of xylem growth were observed by collecting microcore samples weekly during the 2011 growth season. The result indicated that different strategies were adopted at the two selected sites. Trees at the upper distribution limit adopted an “intensive strategy” with higher maximum growth rates (0.69 cell·day⁻¹) within a shorter duration of 95 days, producing 21 new tracheids. By contrast, trees at the lower distribution limit exhibited an “extensive strategy” with lower maximum growth rates (0.53 cell·day⁻¹) over a longer duration of 135 days, producing 50 tracheids. The soil temperature was probably the main factor limiting the onset of cambial activity for L. principis-rupprechtii, its daily mean thresholds for onset were 0 °C and 1.4 °C at the upper and lower distribution limits, respectively. These results indicate that L. principis-rupprechtii is able to adjust its xylem growth according to environmental conditions. Full article

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Forests, Volume 6, Issue 11 (November 2015) – 28 articles , Pages 3809-4373

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