A Study on the Performance of the Electrification of Hydraulic Implements in a Compact Non-Road Mobile Machine: A Case Applied to a Backhoe Loader
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Electrification of Non-Road Mobile Machinery
2.1. Classification by Usage
2.2. Classification by Power Demand
2.3. Electrification Strategies: Current Achievements and Challenges
2.4. Simulation Strategies: Current Methodologies
3. Backhoe System Description
3.1. Traditional Architecture
3.2. Hybrid Architecture
4. Hybrid Compact Non-Road Mobile Machine Characterization
4.1. Characterization of the Backhoe Loader
Hydraulic System
4.2. Drive Cycle
4.3. Engine, Electrical Machine, and Energy Store System Model
4.3.1. Internal Combustion Engine
4.3.2. Electric Machine
4.3.3. Energy Storage System
4.4. Energy Management System
5. Discussion and Results
5.1. Experimental Tests
- Operation of the generator;
- Operation of the electric drive of the rear implement.
5.2. Simulations
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
BSFC | Brake-specific fuel consumption |
C | Compact |
CO | Carbon monoxides |
DC | Direct current |
EL | Extra-large |
FC | Fuel consumption |
FTP | Federal Test Procedure |
Genset | Generation system |
HC | Hydrocarbons |
HWFET | Highway Fuel Economy Test Cycle |
ICE | Internal combustion engine |
L | Large |
LA92 | EPA—California unified cycle |
M | Medium |
Mi | Mini |
Nitrogen oxides | |
NRMM | Non-road mobile machine |
S | Small |
SoC | State of charge |
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Reference | Machinery Type | Hybrid Topology | Implements Hybridization | ICE Maps | Electric Machines Maps | Fuel Comsumption | Experimental Validation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[5] | Tractor | Full Electric | ✗ | ✗ | ✗ | ✗ | ✗ |
[7] | Snowblower | Series | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✗ |
[8] | Tractor | Series | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✗ |
[23] | Excavator | Series/Parallel | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✗ |
[9] | Wheel Loader | Series–Parallel | ✗ | ✓ | ✗ | ✓ | ✗ |
[12] | Tractor | Series | ✗ | ✗ | ✗ | ✓ | ✗ |
[13] | Excavator | Parallel | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✗ |
[14] | Tractor | Series–Parallel | ✗ | ✓ | ✗ | ✓ | ✗ |
[15] | Chisel plough | Parallel | ✗ | ✗ | ✗ | ✗ | ✗ |
[16] | Bulldozer | Series | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✗ |
[17] | Wheel Loader | Series | ✗ | ✓ | ✗ | ✓ | ✗ |
[19] | Tractor | Parallel | ✗ | ✗ | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ |
[21] | Backhoe Loader | Series | ✓ | ✓ | ✗ | ✓ | ✗ |
[22] | Excavator | Series a | ✓ | - | ✗ | ✗ | ✗ |
Here | Backhoe Loader | Series | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
Agriculture and Forestry | Construction | Railway | Mines and Quarrying | Gardening and Handheld Equipment |
---|---|---|---|---|
Harvesters Cultivators Tractors All-terrain vehicles | Excavators Loaders Bulldozers Forklifts Backhoe Loaders Cranes | Locomotives Rail-cars | Underground trucks Mining loaders Excavators | Lawnmowers Chain saws Hedge trimmers |
Power (kW) | Classification | Abbreviation |
---|---|---|
From 09 to 30 | Mini | Mi |
From 30 to 90 | Compact | C |
From 90 to 150 | Small | S |
From 150 to 310 | Medium | M |
From 310 to 1200 | Large | L |
Above 1200 | Extra-Large | EL |
NRMM | Power (kW) | Classification | |
---|---|---|---|
Min. | Max. | ||
Utility vehicles | 18.00 | 37.28 | Mi and C |
Compact skid steer loader and compact track loader | 50.10 | 82.00 | C |
Backhoe Loader | 51.00 | 98.00 | C and S |
Telescopic handlers | 75.00 | 106.00 | C and S |
Underground mining load-haul-dump loaders | 123.00 | 305.00 | S and M |
Motor graders | 104.00 | 399.00 | S, M and L |
Excavators | 9.60 | 404.00 | Mi, C, S, M, and L |
Loaders | 31.00 | 1297.00 | C, S, M, L and EL |
Equipment | Parameters | Values |
---|---|---|
ICE | Cylinders Displacement (L) Gross Power (kW) Gross Torque (Nm) Rated speed (RPM) | 4 4.5 72 420 2200 |
Hydraulic pump | Nominal Capacity @ 2200 RPM Max pressure (bar) Gear pump (cc/ev) Efficiency (\eta_t) | 145 L/min 200 35.427 85% |
Operation | System | Usage (%) |
---|---|---|
Backhoe trenching | Rear hydraulic system | 55–60 |
Backhoe basement excavation | Rear hydraulic system | |
Loader stockpile | Front hydraulics and traction | 10–15 |
Roading | Traction system | 5–10 |
Cell Type | Li-Ion |
---|---|
Modules in series | 4 |
Nominal capacity | 20.4 kWh |
Nominal voltage | 88.8 V |
Nominal current | 233 A |
Maximum discharge power (3 s) | 120 kW |
Continuous discharge power | 20 kW |
Maximum power charge (10 min) | 32 kW |
Continuous charge power | 20 kW |
Dimensions | 0.68 × 0.30 × 0.32 m |
Volume | 65.3 L |
Machine Architecture | Fuel Consumption [kg] | Difference (%) |
---|---|---|
Combustion—theoretical data | 4.32 | - |
Combustion—experimental data | 4.22 | - |
Hybrid—theoretical data | 3.37 | −21.99 |
Hybrid—experimental data | 2.82 | −33.18 |
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Ramos, M.d.F.; Brandao, D.A.d.L.; Galo, D.P.V.; Cardoso Filho, B.d.J.; Pires, I.A.; Maia, T.A.C. A Study on the Performance of the Electrification of Hydraulic Implements in a Compact Non-Road Mobile Machine: A Case Applied to a Backhoe Loader. World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 127. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15040127
Ramos MdF, Brandao DAdL, Galo DPV, Cardoso Filho BdJ, Pires IA, Maia TAC. A Study on the Performance of the Electrification of Hydraulic Implements in a Compact Non-Road Mobile Machine: A Case Applied to a Backhoe Loader. World Electric Vehicle Journal. 2024; 15(4):127. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15040127
Chicago/Turabian StyleRamos, Mariana de F., Dener A. de L. Brandao, Diogo P. V. Galo, Braz de J. Cardoso Filho, Igor A. Pires, and Thales A. C. Maia. 2024. "A Study on the Performance of the Electrification of Hydraulic Implements in a Compact Non-Road Mobile Machine: A Case Applied to a Backhoe Loader" World Electric Vehicle Journal 15, no. 4: 127. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15040127