Examining Model-Based Fast-Charging and Preconditioning on a Vehicle Level
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Contributions
1.2. Organization of the Article
2. Methodology
Domain | Property | Value | Unit |
---|---|---|---|
Vehicle | Vehicle mass m | 1870 | kg |
Drag coefficient | 0.288 | - | |
Vehicle cross-section A | 2.576 | ||
Rolling resistance coefficient | 0.015 | - | |
Battery pack | Capacity | 65 | kWh |
Nominal voltage | 800 | V | |
Total cells | 7359 | - | |
Series cells | 223 | - | |
Parallel cells | 33 | - | |
Heat transfer coefficient | 22.2 [36] | W/K | |
Battery thermal management | Heater COP | 1 | - |
Heating power per cell | 0.5 | W | |
Cooler COP | 2 | - | |
Cooling power per cell | 1.5 | W | |
Cooling maximum threshold | 60 | °C | |
Cell | Manufacturer | TerraE | - |
Type | INR18650-25P | - | |
Format | 18650 | - | |
Anode material | Graphite | - | |
Cathode material | NMC | - | |
Rated capacity | 2.5 | Ah | |
Voltage boundaries | 2.5–4.2 | V | |
Nominal voltage | 3.6 | V | |
Maximum charge rate | 4 | C |
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Impact of Preconditioning on Charge Speed and Energy Consumption
3.2. Impact of Vehicle Velocity on Charge Speed and Energy Consumption
3.3. Proposed Thermal Management Strategy
3.3.1. Timing of Charge Stop and Preconditioning
3.3.2. Preconditioning Target Temperature
4. Conclusions
- Fast-charging should be performed at the lowest possible charge-stop SOC to prevent the increased risk of lithium plating at higher SOCs and allow for maximum self-heating during the charging process, reducing the need for external heating and thus saving energy. This is especially critical at low ambient temperatures.
- Preconditioning target temperatures should be chosen based on user preferences regarding energy cost vs. charging speed, preventing excessive energy consumption for receding charge speed benefits by leveraging the inherent self-heating during the charging process. For the battery under study, this can facilitate energy savings of over 3 kWh while only slightly impacting charging speed, which may be attractive in cost-critical use cases.
- The preconditioning process should be initialized sufficiently early to achieve the desired temperature while minimizing the time maintained at elevated temperatures to reduce energy cost and degradation while maintaining identical charging speeds. However, an additional buffer should be considered to consider uncertainties and allow for homogeneous battery heating. A preconditioning time window of 1 h appears to offer a compromise between achieving maximum charging speed without excessive energy consumption. Further examinations are required to propose optimized preconditioning timing depending on battery pack effects and ambient conditions.
- When the vehicle is operated at higher velocities, preconditioning offers diminishing charge time benefits. Vehicle manufacturers should thus take driving behavior into account when designing fast-charging strategies. For vehicles operated without active battery heating at low ambient conditions, increasing the velocity may allow for higher charging speeds but significantly increases energy costs. When active battery heating is available, higher vehicle velocities offer no benefit towards charge duration.
- Charging speed and energy efficiency can be significantly increased by installing dedicated battery heaters, such as utilizing the vehicle heat pump. This has to be weighed against potential increases in weight, complexity, and cost, posing a design trade-off for vehicle manufacturers to consider depending on the concrete use case.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
BEV | battery electric vehicle |
COP | coefficient of performance |
SOC | state-of-charge |
WLTP | Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Procedure |
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SOC | 20% SOC | 30% SOC | 40% SOC | |
---|---|---|---|---|
°C ambient | 10 °C | 30 °C | 40 °C | 50 °C |
°C ambient | 10 °C | 20 °C | 40 °C | 40 °C |
°C ambient | 20 °C | 20 °C | 30 °C | 40 °C |
°C ambient | 30 °C | 30 °C | 30 °C | 40 °C |
°C ambient | - | 40 °C | 40 °C | 40 °C |
°C ambient | - | - | - | - |
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Abo Gamra, K.; Zähringer, M.; Ladner, A.; Allgäuer, C.; Lienkamp, M. Examining Model-Based Fast-Charging and Preconditioning on a Vehicle Level. World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 377. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15080377
Abo Gamra K, Zähringer M, Ladner A, Allgäuer C, Lienkamp M. Examining Model-Based Fast-Charging and Preconditioning on a Vehicle Level. World Electric Vehicle Journal. 2024; 15(8):377. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15080377
Chicago/Turabian StyleAbo Gamra, Kareem, Maximilian Zähringer, Aaron Ladner, Christian Allgäuer, and Markus Lienkamp. 2024. "Examining Model-Based Fast-Charging and Preconditioning on a Vehicle Level" World Electric Vehicle Journal 15, no. 8: 377. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15080377