Efficiency of Governmental Policy and Programs to Stimulate the Use of Low-Emission and Electric Vehicles: The Case of Romania

Abstract

The contemporary demands for massive reductions in industrial pollution caused by the transport sector, especially in large urban agglomerations, compel local and national authorities to propose, develop, and implement programs and policies that have the ultimate goal of significantly reducing (or eliminating) pollution. The aim of this article is to provide a primary analysis of the effectiveness of Romanian government policies in terms of reducing pollution (CO₂ emissions) caused by transportation (due to the “Rabla Plus” (RP) program, through which financial subsidies are granted for the purchase of a new plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) or battery electric vehicle (BEVs)). After analyzing the justification for the use of low-emission and electric vehicles in traffic (as a major solution to eliminate pollution), a comparative analysis of energy-efficient transport for Romania and Europe is presented in order to identify the directions in which it is necessary to develop and implement government policies specifically in Romania, considering a series of indicators chosen and considered by the authors to be important, including CO₂ emissions compared with the size of the road infrastructure, the number of registered vehicles, the number of passengers transported, and the quantity of goods transported. With the identification of the ability of government programs to encourage the acquisition and use of low-emission and electric vehicles in traffic, the efficiency achieved is calculated in terms of the net CO₂ emissions eliminated (average values of 1949.23 CO₂ tons/year and 1.71 CO₂ tons/vehicle). Furthermore, this aspect is also beneficial for analyses in terms of the economic costs involved (the associated costs are estimated to be 7034.17 EUR/ton of CO₂ eliminated from the transportation sector), identifying new directions of action that are more cost-effective and sustainable and on which government policies should focus in the future.

1. Introduction

The current state of advancement of human society is characterized by the exponential development in terrestrial, air, and naval means of transport, which has led to continuous increases in the transport of goods and persons, globalization of the economy, freedom of movement, and the exchange of ideas worldwide. The transport sector is one of the most important branches of an economy, with connections to the field of transport involving almost all areas, starting with the transport of goods and ending with the transport of people. Throughout history, people have tried to use their energy efficiently in order to obtain better results in the shortest time and with the least effort. Technological progress and innovation are closely linked to the evolution of the transport sector, both due to the needs of long-distance passengers and of companies wanting to transport the maximum amount of goods at the lowest possible cost in the shortest possible time. Whether it be road, rail, air, or sea or river transport, each country and region has tried to develop its transport sector according to the specifics of the area and the existing demands. In many areas, only one form of transport may be appropriate, whereas in other areas, all forms of transport may be suitable. Recently, the quest for efficiency in transport has coincided with the creation of coherent inter-modal systems, in which several types of transport have been integrated [1].

However, the process of streamlining the transport sector can be described as achieving the best results with the lowest consumption of resources and in the shortest possible time, and a major component in transport efficiency is the environmental component. The transport sector is one of the largest polluters in the world, and vehicle emissions into the atmosphere increase the degree of pollution, affecting the entire ecosystem (air, water, and land), as highlighted extensively by studies carried out in the field [2,3]. As an immediate action, global environmental authorities, together with representatives of all countries, have established and implemented several objectives and measures to reduce pollution and pollutant emissions from transport. The measures implemented in this direction relate to establishing and applying mandatory pollution norms for vehicle manufacturers (EURO pollution norms), enforcing the use of mixtures of fossil fuels and biofuels to power internal combustion engines, reducing access in urban areas for vehicles under a certain age, and encouraging the use of bicycles by creating special or dedicated routes for cyclists [4,5,6].

For the targeted measures to be as successful as possible, it is necessary for all parties involved in this process to make efforts so that the quality of life of the population is improved and the environment is affected as little as possible. However, over time, negative effects resulting from exploitation of the means of transport have begun to appear, namely, the pollution of the environment [7,8,9]. This pollution is due to the use of fossil fuel as the energy source for internal combustion engines, whereby the transformation of chemical energy from fossil fuels into usable energy also leads to the emission of pollutants in the atmosphere (CO₂, NOx, HC, and PM), which are harmful to both the environment and to human health [10,11,12].

This problem has major negative impacts, especially in large urban areas, and the immediate solutions are directly related to the field of urban passenger transport through the use of low-pollution or non-polluting means of transport, including trams, trolleybuses, electric or hybrid buses, dedicated routes for urban passenger transport, and intermodal connections between different types of transport (air-to-rail, rail-to-road, etc.). Studies by various researchers have shown that significant positive results can be obtained in reducing the pollution emissions caused by transport through the renewal of vehicle fleets. This vehicle transition is one way to reduce the energy intensity and environmental impacts of public transport [13,14].

Although significant efforts are being made worldwide to improve air quality, the level of pollution is still on an upward trend, and the main causes are generated by human factors through the purchase of increasing numbers of vehicles, but also by increasing global transport demands.

The energetic and economic efficiency of the transport process is in close and direct connection with the technologies used in the operation of the energy sources and fuels, and as a result, current transport efficiency policies primarily aim to reduce the level of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere and increase the use of electricity in transport. Studies have shown that the basis of transport efficiency and pollution reduction plans involves three essential elements (directions of application) [15,16,17]:

• Promoting the use of new powertrain technologies to reduce vehicle pollution;
• Orientating research and development processes towards the identification of new sources of alternative energy that can be used in the field of transport;
• Supporting and promoting low- or zero-pollution vehicles (electric and hybrid vehicles).

Given that 94% of energy needs are currently represented by oil in the European Union (EU), the European Commission (EC) expects that, by 2030, about 15% of energy demand in the transport market will be covered by advanced biofuels, electricity, hydrogen, or renewable fuels. Globally, carbon dioxide emissions in the transport sector increased by less than 0.5% in 2019, compared with an average annual increase of 1.9% since 2000, largely due to the increase in transport efficiency, the development of electricity use, the increased use of biofuels. However, the transport sector generates about 24% of the total CO₂ emissions due to the considerable ongoing use of internal combustion engines based on fossil fuels. Road transport, represented by cars, trucks, buses, or other such means of transport (vehicles), generates approximately 75% of the total carbon emissions from the transport sphere; however, it must also be considered that CO₂ emissions from air and naval transport are continuously increasing, indicating a need for greater involvement in this aspect of energy efficiency and in these areas (means of transport). At the European level, the transport industry accounts for more than 6% of the gross domestic product (GDP) of the EU, with more than 6% of the EU workforce involved in this field, whereas investments account for around 40% of the total budget. In the context in which over 30% of energy consumption in the EU is related to the field of transport, the transportation of goods and people has increased significantly in the last 20 years, thus increasing damage to the environment and society [18]. To improve transportation efficiency in transport, and potentially promote electrification as an immediate solution, it is necessary to combine and implement political measures to support the reduction in carbon dioxide emissions and, implicitly, the degree of global pollution [19].

The structure of this article is thus designed to provide a primary analysis of the effectiveness of Romanian government policies in terms of reducing pollution (CO₂ emissions) due to transportation. After analyzing the justification for the use of low-emission and electric vehicles in traffic, a comparative analysis of energy efficiency when it comes to transport in Romania and Europe is presented, in order to identify the directions in which it is necessary to develop and implement government policies in Romania. The following series of indicators was chosen, because the authors consider these to be important: CO₂ emissions compared with the length of road infrastructure; the number of registered vehicles; the number of passengers transported; and the quantity of goods transported.

By identifying the impact of government programs encouraging the acquisition and use of low-emission and electric vehicles in traffic, reductions in the CO₂ emissions achieved thus far have been calculated. Furthermore, this aspect has been analyzed in terms of the economic costs involved, identifying a new course of action, one which is much more cost-effective, on which government policies should focus in the future. Directions for action are also proposed to reduce the value of the other efficiency indicators considered in this article, in order to reach below the EU average.

2. Electric Vehicle as Sustainable Solution in Transport Sector

One of the solutions that can partially reduce and/or eliminate some of the pollutant emissions caused by internal combustion engines is the use of vehicles that have an electric motor in the powertrain group and one or more battery packs as an energy source [20,21]. Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) use an onboard battery as a power source, which supplies a powertrain based on an electric motor. This constructive feature offers a high energy efficiency (80–90%) because it also uses the energy obtained from regenerative braking as a net contribution to the battery charge. This principle of operation means that there are no local exhaust emissions from BEVs. However, the main disadvantage remains that the battery must be charged periodically at a charging point (slow or fast) connected to the local electric grid. Electric vehicles offer the immediate advantage that they do not emit any pollutant emissions locally (zero-emission vehicles).

From the point of view of the performance related to the autonomy (range) that can be reached/travelled, there are major limitations regarding the energy capacity of the battery, which directly influence this parameter. At the present time, in the case of a compact BEV, an autonomy of 80 up to 400 km [22,23,24] can be expected. The limitation of the autonomy means that BEVs are used with predilection in trips inside major urban agglomerations, but for interurban trips, it is necessary to adopt another technical approach; an immediate solution was found in the form of PHEVs (plug-in hybrid vehicles) which combine the advantages of a BEV with the advantages of a classic vehicle equipped with an internal combustion engine.

For propulsion, PHEVs have both an internal combustion engine (usually gasoline engine) and an electric motor powered by an on-board battery (with a lower energy capacity than a BEV) [25]. The internal combustion engine and the electric motor can work either together or separately depending on the operating conditions (i.e., power requirements). Thus, for low loads and speeds, the PHEVs are moved by the electric motor (in towns or when commuting), and the internal combustion engine intervenes in operation at high loads and speeds (in the interurban and/or motorway traffic environments). The battery can be charged both from a charging point connected to the local electrical network or by operating the internal combustion engine. It goes without saying that the environmental impact of PHEVs depends on the modes of operation/exploitation and is higher than in the case of BEVs, but the main advantage is that they offer a much greater autonomy/range.

At present, in the vehicle market, consumers can choose between several different types of electric vehicles: battery-powered, hybrid, and fuel cell. However, there are some technical differences related to their operation, which are not fully accounted for by users, who are mainly interested in the price and the maximum autonomy of the vehicle when using it electrically only. It should also be mentioned that the manufacturers of electric and hybrid vehicles offer information related only to the indicative electric autonomy (based on standardized tests—NEDC, WLTP), a characteristic that users perceive as a real autonomy of movement.

In summary, the main advantages and disadvantages in using the vehicles available on the market are presented in

Table 1. Comparisons of performance of different powertrains.

Powertrain Type	Advantages	Disadvantages	Electric Autonomy [km]
Conventional ICE	Multiple models available on the automotive market Available/existing refueling infrastructure Mature technology Purchase price	Fossil fuel dependency High level of pollutant emissions Low energetic efficiency Noise	0
BEV	Higher energetic efficiency Low noise Zero pollutant emissions Multiple charging possibilities (home/work, slow/fast)	Poor recharging infrastructure Long time to recharge battery Limited driving range (autonomy) Purchase price	80–400
Hybrid (MILD)	Higher energetic efficiency Available/existing refueling infrastructure	Fossil fuel dependency Medium to high level of pollutant emissions Complex technology Noise	0–10
Plug-in-Hybrid (PHEV)	Higher energetic efficiency Available/existing refueling infrastructure Multiple charging possibilities (home/work, slow/fast)	Complex technology Purchase price	20–80
Range-extended EV	Higher energetic efficiency Available/existing refueling infrastructure Multiple charging possibilities (home/work, slow/fast)	Complex technology	60–140
Fuel cell EV	Higher energetic efficiency Low noise Zero pollutant emissions	Limited commercial availability Requires hydrogen-dedicated refueling infrastructure Complex technology Purchase price	150–500

.

Aside from the immediate benefits provided by BEVs, in terms of a contribution as a sustainable mode of transportation [26], consumer attitudes play an important role in the widespread adoption of BEVs on the market, both in terms of the associated costs and local and national support policies. Most research has been carried out in this direction, the results obtained are based on quantitative and qualitative analyses (statistics) of some questionnaires and interpreted strictly from the consumer’s point of view (attitudes and opinions) [27,28,29,30]. The results of a study which considered consumer motivation in the purchase and use of electric vehicles showed that there are significant relationships between effort expectancy, social influence, technophilia, and perceived environmental knowledge, in the observation of purchase intentions towards electric vehicles [31].

The role of environmental performance was further investigated, comparing price value and range confidence regarding consumer purchase intentions for EVs, performing 167 test drives with a plug-in battery EV and interviewing 40 end-user subjects about their beliefs toward EVs [32]. The main conclusion of this research was that the environmental performance of EVs was found to be more important to consumers than economic value and range confidence. The requirement of innovative production and marketing and supportive government policies, including infrastructure investment to ameliorate perceived discrepancies between ICE vehicles and EVs in terms of money, performance, range, convenience, aesthetics, and symbolic value, was highlighted as a major conclusion in [33,34]. In [35], the results of research on the effect of informational and normative conformity in the choice of electric vehicles versus conventional vehicles were discussed. The results showed that (as policy measures) parking policies, such as parking price and slots reserved for BEV, can be effective in boosting the demand for BEVs (but does not have a sufficient impact to compensate for major differences in range or purchase price with a conventional vehicle). An analysis of drivers’ preferences for electric vehicles in Italy, using a scenario that takes into consideration the probability of buying a BEV versus a conventional vehicle, was presented in [36]. The results indicate that, in Italy, the (current) financial incentives would have a larger impact on the probability of buying a BEV than the technological improvements in conventional vehicles.

Additionally, a study regarding the factors influencing the purchasing decisions of low-emission vehicles was conducting in Slovenia [37]. Based on their findings, the authors emphasize that in order to increase interest in purchasing BEVs, the related policy should be adjusted and implemented in a variety of different measures, combining both pull (special incentives) and push (vehicle registration fee and car insurance based on carbon emissions of vehicles) factors. From the point of view of considering the policies to support the introduction of BEVs onto the automotive market, a recent study regarding the uptake of electric vehicles in Italy and Slovenia presented that policy makers in both countries perceived the importance associated with the purchase price of a BEV [38]. In April 2019, Italy introduced a purchase subsidy called “Ecobonus”, which finances up to EUR 6000 (for a new vehicle whose CO₂ emissions are lower than 20 g/km), and furthermore, starting from August 2020, the subsidy has been increased up to EUR 8000. In Slovenia, the financial aid (subsidy) for a BEV purchase is EUR 7500 and EUR 3500 for an PHEV; both measures have been in place since 2016 [39].

As can be seen, most of the published articles have focused on research on consumer attitudes towards BEV. The authors are not aware of the existence of an article that quantifies the effectiveness of policies to promote low-emission and electric vehicles on the automotive market; therefore, this paper seeks to address this knowledge gap, in support of the further development and implementation of public policies of this aspect, with immediate impact on the contemporary need for reducing polluting emissions.

3. Comparative Analysis of Energy Efficiency in Transport for Romania and Europe

To create and implement policies at national and local levels, in terms of reducing pollution in transport, it is first necessary to analyze the energy efficiency of the areas that comprise a country’s economy. Energy efficiency can be assessed using technical indicators specific to the analyzed field, as well as an approach that considers the impact of activities on the environment (by analyzing GHG emissions) [40]. Coordination with current and future European environmental policies means that the efficiency indicators considered in the article should at least be compared with the European average, in order to identify the directions to be followed in the development and implementation of policies to reduce the pollution caused by transport, and streamlining the use of energy resources in Romania, with a direct effect on environmental protection.

To highlight the main aspects related to energy efficiency in transport, statistical data provided by Eurostat [41] for EU member countries were used, choosing only a few countries socio-culturally similar to Romania, so that the comparison between them was as relevant as possible. The countries selected for analysis were Bulgaria, Germany, Spain, France, Italy, Hungary, Austria, Poland, Sweden, Norway, and the United Kingdom, as well as Romania. In addition, data on the EU average were also used in graphs and tables. Regarding the oil consumption in the field of road transport, in the period 2015–2019, for the countries under analysis, it is as follows (

Table 2. Oil consumption (thousand tons) in the field of road transport in the period 2015–2019 (source [41]).

	2015	2016	2017	2018	2019
EU	255,543	261,188	266,250	267,613	270,302
Bulgaria	3010	3066	3092	3181	3306
Germany	52,417	53,743	54,584	52,769	53,338
Spain	26,617	27,441	28,053	28,735	28,983
France	42,573	42,728	43,008	42,030	42,012
Italy	33,609	32,964	31,654	32,806	33,140
Hungary	4005	4075	4288	4570	4848
Austria	7868	8010	8099	8222	8314
Poland	15,847	17,797	20,657	21,506	21,998
Romania	5058	5472	5853	6026	6246
Sweden	6740	6645	6748	6568	6486
Norway	3367	3453	3404	3386	3324
UK	38,178	39,063	39,122	38,960	38,580

).

Oil consumption in the selected European countries generally showed an upward trend throughout the period under review, with a few exceptions. The countries that have managed to reduce oil consumption in the field of road transport are France and Norway. France has been experiencing steady declines in oil consumption since 2017, whereas Norway has exhibited this trend since 2016. The rest of the countries surveyed are experiencing minor fluctuations in oil consumption. The largest consumers of oil in Europe are Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, and Spain; these five countries together consume about 75% of the total oil used in transport in Europe. For Romania, from the perspective of oil consumption, the average of the considered period is 5731 thousand tons of oil/year, with an increasing annual trend (but well below the EU average). It can be appreciated that the increase in oil consumption in the field of road transport in the analyzed period is both due to the increase in the number of vehicles involved in transport activities and an intensification of commercial activities, in most cases because of globalization.

From the perspective of CO₂ emissions in the field of road transport, in the EU, the total values recorded were on an upward trend, with an increase of 5.1% in 2019 compared with 2015 (

Table 3. Carbon dioxide emissions (thousands of tons) in the field of transport in the period 2015–2019 (source [41]).

	2015	2016	2017	2018	2019
EU	793,682	811,640	826,143	828,195	834,878
Bulgaria	9338	9443	9573	9792	9963
Germany	163,003	166,260	169,365	163,925	165,533
Spain	83,492	86,353	89,028	90,266	91,372
France	133,561	134,163	134,473	131,857	132,180
Italy	106,260	104,836	100,918	104,345	105,514
Hungary	12,226	12,254	13,050	13,871	14,702
Austria	22,726	23,579	24,332	24,453	24,508
Poland	48,017	54,732	63,242	65,115	66,125
Romania	15,714	16,828	17,976	18,435	18,935
Sweden	18,217	17,505	17,089	16,804	16,431
UK	121,092	123,577	123,784	122,055	119,818

). Given the application of policies to reduce the degree of pollution at EU level, up to “zero pollution” in 2050, it can be observed that measures to reduce CO₂ levels now require substantial changes, both at whole European level and in each member state. Although in recent years the emergence and development of electric and hybrid vehicle technology for passenger transportation has had a positive impact on road transport pollution, the total CO₂ levels are rising. This can be explained by the increase in the total number of vehicles and freight operations which, unfortunately, do not yet use an electric or hybrid propulsion system, with the majority of road transport vehicles still powered by diesel engines [42].

In Romania, carbon dioxide emissions followed the European trend, registering annual increases in 2015–2019, from 15,714 thousand tons of CO₂ in 2015 to 18,935 thousand tons of CO₂ in 2019. Compared with some countries in the region, the average emissions in Romania in the analyzed period are above those in Bulgaria (9622 thousand tons of CO₂) and Hungary (13,221 thousand tons of CO₂), and below the average annual value in Poland (59,446 thousand tons of CO₂).

Technological advancements and the emergence of alternative fuels on the market have led the EU’s population to seek out new travel solutions, which are less expensive and emit less pollution [43]. It can be seen that, in recent years, LPG-powered vehicles have mainly been used in Central and Eastern European countries, whereas in Western Europe, the population of those countries has shifted more to hybrid or electric vehicles (

Table 4. Number of existing vehicles in 2019 by fuel type (source [41]).

	LPG	Electric	Hybrid (Electric–Gasoline)	Plug-In (Electric–Gasoline)	Hybrid (Electric–Diesel)	Plug-In (Electric–Diesel)	Hydrogen Fuel-Cell
Bulgaria	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Germany	371,472	136,617	-	-	-	-	-
Spain	64,889	39,453	321,203	6261	13,907	207	74
France	138	155,125	444,720	75,840	71,002	2116	200
Italy	2,574,287	22,728	316,209	-	18,359	-	-
Hungary	19	6595	-	-	-	-	-
Austria	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Poland	3,327,624	5196	22,768	-	2688	-	1
Romania	17	2798	23,119	-	33,277	-	-
Sweden	13	30,343	112,140	62,355	847	4234	39
UK	20,000	55,335	401,611	123,459	10,075	1613	104

). This can is largely due to the much more developed level of electricity infrastructure, to the detriment of LPG stations. At the European level, France is the country with the most vehicles registered in 2019 (excluding LPG) that run on alternative fuels, followed by Germany, Italy, and Spain. In 2019, the majority of vehicles using alternative fuels in the EU used liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), followed by hybrid vehicles (electric–gasoline), and electric vehicles in third.

In Romania, the trend of using alternative fuels has come from Western European countries; in 2019, there were approximately 2800 electric vehicles registered, 23,119 hybrid electric–gasoline vehicles, and 33,277 hybrid electric–diesel vehicles. The number of electric vehicles in Romania is increasing at an exponential rate, as a result of national policies encouraging the replacement of vehicle fleets, as well as fiscal incentives provided by the government. Furthermore, the arrival of the first Dacia electric model (Dacia Spring) on the market will boost the sales of electric vehicles in Romania.

Given the policies to reduce the level of pollution in Europe, the total number of vehicles registered in the EU in the period 2015–2019 has shown an upward trend in almost all member countries (

Table 5. Total number of vehicles in circulation in the period 2015–2019 (source [41]).

	2015	2016	2017	2018	2019
Bulgaria	3,667,787	3,661,320	3,249,375	3,267,952	3,339,725
Germany	49,570,249	50,374,203	51,253,775	52,086,030	52,866,601
Spain	27,883,710	28,451,448	29,142,244	29,820,646	30,339,742
France	40,756,389	40,558,273	40,602,317	40,721,812	41,270,945
Italy	42,222,284	42,842,641	43,578,092	44,149,138	44,745,355
Hungary	3,723,513	3,860,650	4,044,298	4,241,778	4,439,455
Austria	5,745,912	5,838,027	5,939,176	6,048,241	6,135,464
Poland	24,433,311	25,512,108	26,450,712	27,513,544	28,583,593
Romania	6,093,969	6,470,693	7,062,913	7,580,307	8,091,793
Sweden	2,693,477	2,737,988	2,788,328	2,815,482	2,861,312
UK	34,833,855	35,798,084	36,276,175	36,708,206	37,304,336

). Although measures initiated at European Commission level generally aim to reduce the number of vehicles and promote the use of alternative means of transport with a lower level of pollution, vehicle sales have continued to increase. It is no less true that among the newly registered vehicles there are also electric or hybrid vehicles; however, as mentioned above, the number is still very low.

Among the analyzed countries, the highest percentage increase in the number of vehicles in the period 2015–2019 is observed in Romania, which recorded an increase of 32.78% in the number of vehicles in 2019 compared with 2015. This aspect can be explained by the elimination of import duties on used vehicles, a context in which imports of motor vehicles from the EU have increased substantially. In contrast to Romania, the number of vehicles in Bulgaria decreased by 8.94% in 2019 compared with 2015, whereas in France, the number of vehicles remained roughly the same, with a growth percentage of only 1.26%.

Taxes collected by EU member states are one of the basic tools for reducing pollution and stimulating the use of electric or hybrid vehicles. However, a high level of taxes may not always have the desired effect, and additional measures to stimulate the population may be required (e.g., the introduction of tax facilities). Tolls are large revenues through which member states implement various policies to reduce pollution and increase the efficiency of transport, the most representative examples being the development of road infrastructure and the creation of the necessary frameworks to facilitate intermodal transport [44]. At the EU level, in 2019, pollution taxes represented 14.26% of all transport taxes, whereas in Romania, this percentage constituted only 1.74% (

Table 6. Situation of receipts from transport and pollution taxes in the period 2015–2019 (million EUR) (source [41]).

	2015		2016		2017		2018		2019
	Transport Taxes	Pollution Taxes	Transport Taxes	Pollution Taxes	Transport Taxes	Pollution Taxes	Transport Taxes	Pollution Taxes	Transport Taxes	Pollution Taxes
EU	57,221.83	8981.33	58,929.76	8941.03	60,489.71	9028.32	62,525.85	8909.55	62,948.20	8976.91
Bulgaria	129.40	9.03	155.35	9.37	156.74	10.70	174.18	4.27	180.50	26.87
Germany	2553.00	706.00	2665.96	749.00	2726.04	774.00	2865.00	768.60	2957.96	792.30
Spain	6303.00	2452.00	6155.00	2463.00	6375.00	2472.00	6808.00	2322.00	6766.00	2257.00
France	9987.00	644.99	10,490.00	597.99	10,492.00	639.99	10,877.00	569.99	10,699.00	549.00
Italy	508.93	266.47	515.13	272.20	558.31	282.63	546.20	288.42	464.91	316.94
Hungary	2908.19	55.69	3018.40	58.11	3218.62	62.50	3294.73	79.34	3403.79	69.38
Austria	911.78	696.93	965.57	572.74	1063.89	548.51	1147.01	526.11	1185.31	561.48
Poland	403.00	4.61	400.79	4.77	258.23	5.25	280.90	5.14	313.93	5.48
Romania	2004.92	111.94	2080.28	110.99	2067.86	176.02	2057.16	234.25	2118.78	239.21
Sweden	3346.07	231.18	3276.65	234.22	3132.52	238.55	2858.56	245.58	2637.07	247.59
UK	15,079.08	1416.30	13,535.42	1249.57	12,907.93	1031.17	13,111.64	951.72	14,109.62	893.17

). It can be concluded that the percentage of pollution taxes in the total transport taxes in Romania is considerably below the average European level. As a result, there are still deficiencies in the application of measures to ensure a low level of pollution in the future. In terms of transport taxes, in 2019, the national average in the EU was EUR 2331 million, whereas Romania earned only EUR 313 million from transport taxes, which could explain the difficult process of developing the Romanian infrastructure (transport taxes are directed directly to construction/repair projects for the national transport infrastructure).

Based on the data presented above, concerning the differences between EU countries in the field of road transport, further analysis of the energy efficiency of transport in terms of CO₂ emissions has been conducted, according to the following indicators considered by the authors (reported in 2019,

Table 7. Data for analysis of the energy efficiency in transport (2019) (source [41]).

	CO2 Emissions (Thousand Tones)	Length of Road Infrastructure (km)	Number of Registered Vehicles	Passenger Transported (Thousand Passenger)	Quantity of Goods Transported (Thousand Tones)
EU	834,878	6,334,737	267,834,417	9,003,672	13,527,194
Bulgaria	9963	19,089	3,339,725	21,329	114,574
Germany	165,533	644,480	52,866,601	2,938,023	3,208,232
Spain	91,372	150,040	30,339,742	634,954	1,542,109
France	132,180	1,092,416	41,270,945	1,266,254	1,634,946
Italy	105,514	228,124	44,745,355	898,472	978,883
Hungary	14,702	218,678	4,439,455	82,607	202,631
Austria	24,508	128,645	6,135,464	314,892	402,083
Poland	66,125	424,915	28,583,593	299,053	1,506,450
Romania	18,935	85,525	8,091,793	69,707	256,641
Norway	11,263	95,164	2,861,312	80,402	244,312
Sweden	16,431	197,163	4,331,429	264,603	449,362
UK	119,818	397,669	37,304,336	1,836,886	1,470,486

):

• Length of road infrastructure;
• Registered vehicles;
• Passenger transported;
• Quantity of goods transported.

Following the data analysis (Figure 1), it can be said that from the perspective of carbon dioxide emissions compared with the length of road infrastructure in Romania, the amount of 0.22 thousand tons of CO₂/km/year is above the European average, mainly due to the low level of infrastructure; predominantly, the short length of highways and express roads, as well as the large share of national and county roads comprising the transport infrastructure in Romania. In 2019, the lowest value of the ratio between CO₂ emissions and the length of road infrastructure was recorded in Hungary, where the level of pollution per 1 km of road was 0.07 thousand tons of CO₂, compared with the EU average of 0.13 thousand tons of CO₂.

In order to reveal the average pollution level of a vehicle over a period of one year (2019), the total level of carbon dioxide emissions in the transport field compared with the number of vehicles in circulation in each country under consideration is reported (Figure 2). Thus, in Romania, in 2019, each vehicle produced an average of 2.31 tons of CO₂, compared with the EU average of 3.12 tons of CO₂. According to the data obtained, in 2019, Romania and Poland recorded the lowest level of pollution compared with the number of vehicles, among all countries analyzed, whereas the highest value was recorded in Austria (4 tons CO₂/vehicle/year).

From the perspective of transported goods (Figure 3), compared with the level of carbon dioxide emissions, the average for the EU in 2019 was 0.06 tons of CO₂/ton of goods. With a value of 0.07 tons of CO₂/ton of goods, Romania was average for the analyzed countries, with the extremes recorded by Italy, with 0.11 tons of CO₂/ton of goods, and Sweden, with 0.04 tons of CO₂/ton of goods.

Passenger transport in Romania is a reference element in terms of carbon dioxide emissions, and the level of pollution in road passenger transport can be observed compared with the EU average. Thus, in 2019, Romania registered a value of 0.27 tons of CO₂/passenger, whereas the average in the EU stood at 0.09 tons of CO₂/passenger (Figure 4). Following this analysis, it can be stated that the level of pollution generated by the road transport system in Romania is higher than the European average, being second highest after Bulgaria (0.47 tons of CO₂/passenger) in terms of pollution. From this perspective, the analyzed countries with the lowest level of pollution in the passenger transport sphere are Germany and Sweden, with a value of 0.06 tons of CO₂/passenger.

By analyzing the indicators chosen to determine the efficiency of transport in the case of Romania (Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4), compared with the average EU value, Romania was only just below the value in the category of “CO₂ emissions/number of registered vehicles”. Otherwise, the three other indicators related to CO₂ emissions were higher than the average EU level, which implies the need for national authorities to develop and implement programs in the field of transport that will increase the degree of energy efficiency in this economic sector; one of these programs supports the use of low-emission and electric vehicles in traffic.

4. European Actions to Support the Use of Low-Emission Vehicles (Electric and Hybrid Vehicles)

At the EU level, there are a number of regulations related to the efficiency of transport as well as the degree of pollution produced by transport (whether referring to the transport of people or goods); additional aims are to implement transport policies with as little impact as possible on the environment, while improving the quality of life and health of the population. Furthermore, current EU legislation provides a framework that promotes low-emission (hybrid) and electric vehicles, and to this end, several measures are available to encourage consumers to purchase and use these types of vehicles. In this regard, Romania, being an EU member, has adopted and integrated the European directions of action into national legislation and governmental policies. Measures taken at the European level are primarily based on incentives designed and implemented at various levels of governance, primarily through national-level measures (Figure 5).

Charging for infrastructure is an important measure in the field of transportation efficiency, and it is one of the main goals at European level. Infrastructure charging can be applied to all modes of transportation, and fees and charges must be variable to account for the costs of various levels of pollution, transport times, damage, and infrastructure costs. Measures of charging policy manifest in payments by the transport operators which will finance infrastructural development and implicitly lead to a more efficient use of the current infrastructure capacity. Taxation of transport sectors, in particular road transport, is also based on the use of differentiated tolls (depending on the type of road used) and the distance traveled (mainly in the case of the transport of goods).

The transition to low-emission mobility at EU level is promoted by providing incentives for the introduction and use of electric and hybrid vehicles, exemplified by [45,46]:

• Purchase subsidies;
• Tax facilities at registration and during the period of ownership (including exemption from the payment of tax);
• Benefits to VAT-related private companies as well as incentives related to the use of infrastructure.

The increase in the number of electric or hybrid vehicles is directly related to the existence of incentives provided by states. The more governments of EU member states encourage the purchase of electric/hybrid vehicles by offering advantages of fiscal or financial incentives, the greater the desire of the population will be to renew their vehicles (by replacing vehicles with internal combustion engines with electric vehicles). However, the manner and intensity at which these measures are implemented varies greatly across European countries, both in terms of the number of measures taken and the intensity with which they are applied (

Table 8. Major measures taken to promote the use of low-emission and electric vehicles [44,45,46,47,48].

Country	Purchase Subsidies	Ownership Benefits	Infrastructure Support	Local Incentives
Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, UK	+	+	+	+
Belgium, Czech Republic, Finland	+	+	+	-
Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary, Latvia	+	+	-	+
Croatia, Luxembourg	+	-	+	-
Cyprus	-	+	-	+
Estonia	-	-	+	+
Romania	+	+	-	-
Lithuania, Slovenia	+	-	-	+
Poland	-	+	-	-
Slovakia	-	+	-	-

).

The application of these measures, in line with the European strategy for low-emission mobility, emphasizes the need to increase the number of low-emission vehicles in road transport, the immediate need to increase the use of renewable energy for transport, and remove obstacles (economic and political) to electrifying the transportation domain.

Fifteen European countries (including the United Kingdom) apply all the measures presented in Table 8, in order to promote the electrification of transport. An immediate direction is the need to expand recharging infrastructure, inter-operability and standardization at EU level for electromobility, in order to achieve the major goal of enabling equally easy journeys by electric vehicle through Europe, as is the case when using a conventional vehicle [46].

5. Romania’s Actions to Support the Use of Low-Emission Vehicles

Table 8 reflects that the political measures taken in Romania for encouraging the use of low-emission vehicles focus on two aspects: purchase subsidies (financial purchase support in form of eco-voucher and/or eco-bonus) and ownership benefits (tax reduction or exemption). The purchase subsidies were established by national policies through multiannual programs (Rabla-R and Rabla Plus-RP). However, the ownership benefits measures were implemented at the level of local administrations, with an exact value of the tax reductions which benefit the owners of low-emission vehicles not being nationally established (the amount of tax reduced differs between local authorities).

In 2005, Romania initiated a major multi-annual government program to support the acquisition of new less-polluting vehicles (with an IC engine, electric and hybrid powertrain). The purpose of the program is to reduce CO₂ emissions from the transport sector, by eliminating old vehicles (with pollution norms of Euro 0 to Euro 4) from the automotive market and transportation environment; financial incentives are provided for this purchase. The financial bonuses offered by the program depend on the two major directions of program applicability. The first program, “Rabla” (R) (2005–2020), grants a subvention for purchasing a new vehicle and eliminating an old and polluting vehicle from the road (“scrapping premium”); the second program, “Rabla Plus” (RP) (2016–2020), grants a supplementary subvention for purchasing new mild-hybrid vehicles, plug-in hybrid or battery electric vehicles.

For example, the conditions applied for both programs are presented below, with the year 2019 for reference. The value of the eco-voucher in the R Program for vehicles older than 8 years was EUR 1393, and was granted for the purchase of a new vehicle which generates a maximum of 120 gCO₂/km NEDC (in mixed operation), according to information entered in the COC (Certificate of Conformity). If the levels of CO₂ emissions according to the WLTP standard are provided in the COC, the eco-voucher can be granted for a new vehicle whose propulsion system generates a maximum of 140 gCO₂/km NEDC (in mixed operation). An eco-bonus can be added to the eco-voucher, under the following conditions:

• When purchasing a new vehicle, equipped with a propulsion system that generates a maximum emission quantity of 96 gCO₂/km NEDC, according to the information entered in the COC, an eco-bonus of EUR 215 is granted; if the CO₂ emissions according to the WLTP standard are provided in the COC, for the new vehicle whose propulsion system generates a maximum of 105 gCO₂/km NEDC (in mixed operation mode), an eco-bonus of EUR 215 is also granted;
• When purchasing a new vehicle equipped with a hybrid propulsion system, an eco-bonus for EUR 360 is granted (as financial aid through the RP program);
• When purchasing a new vehicle equipped with an electric propulsion system, an eco-bonus for EUR 360 is granted (as financial aid through the RP program).

Therefore, if a consumer opts for a vehicle that emits a maximum of 96 (105) gCO₂/km, and which is also a conventional hybrid, EUR 1760 will be financed by the government for the total cost of the vehicle. If both conditions are met, the two eco-bonuses can be combined with the eco-voucher, thus reaching a total funding of EUR 2210.

If a consumer opts for a plug-in hybrid vehicle, in addition to previous subsidies, EUR 4288 will be financed by the government for the total cost of the vehicle; if a consumer opts for an electric vehicle, in addition to previous subsidies EUR 9647 will be financed by the government for the total cost of the vehicle.

The major requirements of the RP Program are those particularly related to PHEVs. The only eligible vehicles for participation in the RP Program are those that meet the condition that CO₂ emissions should be lower than 50 g/km (measured according to the NEDC standard). Only a limited number of vehicles which satisfied this requirement were purchased in Romania, due to the small number of PHEV types available on the Romanian automotive market (Renault, Mitsubishi, Volvo and Hyundai). This is because consumers in Romania prefer to buy vehicles manufactured by Volkswagen (including Skoda and Seat brands) and Dacia, both of which do not sell PHEV models in Romania (during the analyzed period of 2005–2020). The results of the R and RP programs are summarized and presented in

Table 9. R Program results [49].

Year	Scrapped Vehicles	New Vehicles Purchased	Eco-Voucher Value (EUR)	R Program Budget (EUR)
2005	14,607	14,607	825	12,370,794
2006	15,110	15,110	817	13,475,621
2007	16,444	16,444	886	14,614,272
2008	30,466	30,466	835	33,402,923
2009	32,327	32,327	933	46,660,118
2010	189,360	62,550	911	173,054,337
2011	118,526	39,216	892	107,092,532
2012	44,857	15,149	875	39,370,079
2013	19,846	13,465	1470	33,919,001
2014	20,517	20,391	1446	31,147,796
2015	25,580	25,420	1445	48,908,452
2016	25,977	25,861	1438	39,808,037
2017	28,367	27,997	1439	43,158,780
2018	47,732	47,122	1404	71,484,105
2019	52,588	51,498	1393	80,391,022
Total	682,304	437,623	-	788,857,869

and

Table 10. RP program results [49].

Year	PHEV	BEV	Eco-Bonus Value (EUR)	RP Program Budget (EUR)
2016	6	39	4423 for BEV 1106 for PHEV	1,105,800
2017	100	440	9960 for BEV 4427 for PHEV	9,960,000
2018	111	699	9718 for BEV 4319 for PHEV	15,117,500
2019	228	1310	9647 for BEV 4288 for PHEV	20,440.800
2020	591	2181	9416 for BEV 4185 for PHEV	42,372,800
Total	1036	4669	-	68,556,100

, respectively.

6. Results and Discussions

In order to calculate the energy and economic efficiency of the program supported by the Romanian government, for the introduction of low-emission and electric vehicles in traffic, the following hypotheses were taken into account, based on which the economic efficiency analysis of the RP program was performed:

• Average distance of 25,000 km travelled annually;
• Average energy consumption for electric vehicles is 18.6 kW/100 km [20,25,50,51];
• The intensity of carbon emissions for electricity production was broken down each year in the considered period;
• CO₂ emissions for PHEVs were considered to be 44 g/km (considered for the NEDC test cycle).

The greenhouse gas emission intensity of electricity generation (gCO₂eq/kWh) necessary to charge the batteries of the BEVs and PHEVs is presented in Figure 6, based on data published by the EEA [52].

The calculation of CO₂ emissions emitted into atmosphere by a BEV is given by:

$${\mathrm{CO}}_2{}_{\mathrm{BEV}\_\mathrm{emission}}={\displaystyle \sum }_{i=2016}^{2020}{\mathrm{BEV}}_{\mathrm{C}}\times D_i\times N_i\times {\left(\frac{{\mathrm{qCO}}_2{}_{\mathrm{eq}}}{\mathrm{kWh}}\right)}_i$$

(1)

where BEV_C represents the BEV energy consumption (kWh/100 km), D_i is the distance travelled annually, N_i is the number of vehicles, (gCO_2eq/kWh)_i is the carbon intensity of the electric energy used at low voltage to recharge the BEV’s battery and i is the reference year. To calculate the PHEV CO₂ emission, a value of 44 g/km was considered. The results obtained from estimating the efficiency of the national program for reducing CO₂ emissions caused by transport by stimulating the purchase of BEVs and PHEVs are presented in Figure 7.

To further calculate the net balance of CO₂ emissions, it was considered that the same number of Euro 4 vehicles were “replaced” due to the RP program, in addition to the previously obtained results. The level of CO₂ emissions for a Euro 4 vehicle was considered to be 120 gCO₂/km, and for an equal number of vehicles replaced to those with low emissions and powered by electric batteries (BEV + PHEV), the total CO₂ emissions were 17,418.75 tons, with an average value of 3483.75 CO₂ tons/year and 3.05 CO₂ tons/vehicle.

For net calculation of the reduced CO₂ emissions due to applying the RP program, it must be subtracted from the previously calculated values: the CO₂ emissions due to the intensity of electricity production (6533.0 CO₂ tons), and CO₂ emissions caused by hybrid vehicles (1139.6 CO₂ tons). Thus, the net reduction in CO₂ emissions is 9746.15 CO₂ tons, with average values of 1949.23 CO₂ tons/year and 1.71 CO₂ tons/vehicle (approximately 27% lower than the value reported in 2019, and 45% lower than the average value recorded at EU level—Figure 2).

These values are further correlated with the total financial value of the program (Table 10), for the duration of the RP program, to calculate an average value for the intensity of financial aid granted by the government, from the point of view of environmental protection measures. It can be observed that the associated costs are 7034.17 EUR/ton of CO₂. Thus, if it is considered that the amount allocated by the Romanian government for the PR program had been used for the acquisition of green energy certificates (1 ton CO₂ = 40 EUR), it would have been possible to reduce pollution by a quantity of approximately 1,713,902.5 tons of CO₂ (a quantity far higher than through the RP program).

Under these circumstances, the question arises as to whether the program (in its current structure and value of subsidies and financial benefits) is efficient in terms of reducing CO₂ emissions, and whether instead of continuing the RP program, the Romanian government should encourage green energy production through the direct acquisition of green certificates.

However, the cost structure related to the price of vehicles must also be considered for a more accurate analysis. It is well known that VAT is directed to the state in any commercial transaction; thus, part of the subsidies granted for the purchase of low-emission and electric vehicles (with zero emissions) is returned to the state. In Romania, for an average sales value of EUR 30,000 for a BEV or PHEV, the amount of the related VAT is EUR 5700 (59.3% of the financial subsidy granted through the RP program for BEVs and 135.7 % for PHEVs). Under these conditions, the government may find it easier to set a fixed level of VAT for these types of vehicles (e.g., 5–10% instead of the current 19%), which would eliminate bureaucratic (inherent) problems and make the program more flexible in terms of applications in the automotive market. Additionally, other related and income taxes (sales and services) which are returned to the state must be considered for more in-depth and complex financial analyses.

To reduce the level of the other three indicators analyzed in this article, whose average values in Romania were above the mean EU levels, specific policies can be adopted and applied for each one. In the case of the “CO₂ emissions/length of infrastructure” and “CO₂ emissions/quantity of goods transported” indicators, a significant increase in the length of modern road infrastructure (by creating road corridors which connect the areas of Romania faster and more efficiently and that provides optimized traffic flow) will result in an immediate decrease.

Decreasing the value of the “CO₂ emissions/passenger transported” indicator can be achieved by increasing the number of passengers transported by specific means of transport (such as trams and buses) and using low-emission and electric technologies. An immediate solution is characterized by the total electrification of urban passenger transport systems, which offers an increase in the number of transported passengers/transport and a reduced value of CO₂ emission/passenger/km [53].

However, adopting these policies, actions and methods to be further applied in order to reduce CO₂ pollution of the environment is directly related to the decreases in the intensity (or total elimination) of CO₂ emissions due to electricity production.

It should be noted that this study has limitations related primarily to the initial assumptions considered (number of average kilometers traveled annually by a vehicle, estimation of the exchange rate of the Romanian currency, the volatile price of green certificates on the market and the average energy consumption of an electric vehicle), all of which directly affect the calculated levels of CO₂ emissions. All these hypotheses are subject to immediate changes, because they are directly and indirectly related to the technological advancement of electric vehicles, the general economic situation, the existence of a road infrastructure that allows for greater mobility with greater efficiency, etc.

7. Conclusions

Reducing pollutant emissions, particularly CO₂ emissions, is no longer on some national political agendas, although it is a global necessity and urgency today. The transport sphere, as one of the most polluting economic sectors, must immediately identify and implement available measures and technologies to reduce and/or eliminate the polluting emissions. At European level, there are significant differences between countries in terms of transportation energy efficiency, which are highlighted in this article by analyzing specific indicators such as CO₂ emissions vs. the length of road infrastructure, the number of registered vehicles, the number of passengers transported, and quantity of goods transported.

One measure related to increasing the energy efficiency of transportation (in terms of reducing environmental pollution) is the introduction of low-emission (PHEV) and electric (BEV) vehicles onto the market, which leads to reductions in CO₂ emissions produced by traffic. At present, there are measures in place at the European level and in each member state to encourage the purchase of such vehicles through purchase subsidies, ownership benefits, infrastructure support and local incentives.

Romania, as a member of the EU, applies two programs (R and RP) at government level, designed to eliminate old and polluting vehicles from the road and to encourage the purchase of low-emission and electric vehicles. Analysis of the efficiency of the RP program showed that during 5 years of application (2016–2020), a net reduction of 9746.15 tons of CO₂ emissions (with an average value of 1949.23 CO₂ tons/year and 1.71 CO₂ tons/vehicle) was achieved when increasing the number of low-emission and electric vehicles in circulation.

The results obtained are modest but directly related to the low market penetration rate by the type of vehicles considered in this study (5.5% for Romania in 2020). The dynamics of increasing customers’ acquisition of these types of vehicles, maintaining and developing support programs, increased involvement of local authorities, and the existence of a nationally produced electric vehicle model (i.e., the Dacia Spring), can lead to a market share of 25–30% in the next 2–4 years.

There are some alternatives to the analyzed program, in terms of efficiency in reducing CO₂ emissions in Romanian transportation sector (e.g., the direct acquisition of green certificates by Romanian government and the encouragement of green energy production). However, it should not neglect the fact that, mainly, electric vehicles are used in large urban agglomerations and their use provides the benefit of zero local emissions, which improves citizens’ quality of life and health (things that must be considered and promoted continuously through various programs by any government and local authority).