Sustaining Increasing Wintering Raptor Populations in Central Israel: A 38 Years Perspective

Abstract

Censusing wintering raptors has proved useful in detecting changes in populations. Israel is a well-known bottleneck for soaring birds in the autumn and the spring. Despite the many studies on migratory raptors in Israel, none have undertaken the study of the overwintering raptors consistently over extended periods, such as 1985–2022, a period of 38 years. During the study, conducted in central Israel, we recorded 44,120 individuals from 32 species. The most frequently observed species were Black Kite (Milvus migrans; 59.1%), Common Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus; 18.1%), and Steppe Buzzard (Buteo vulpinus; 6.6%). We found an increase in the total number of individuals, where the mean increase compared to the starting year was 851.6 ± 1071.2%, and the average annual growth was 43.7 ± 158.8%, respectively. A similar pattern was found in the number of species during the study period, where the mean annual increase was 17.1 ± 20.5%, and the average annual growth rate of species richness was 2.2 ± 16.2%. However, an evaluation of the mortality from power lines of two listed species suggests that the wintering raptors are not well protected in the study area. The conservation of these raptors and the possible sustainability of their wintering populations into the future, some of which are on the IUCN Red List, are of great importance, and the authorities should try and understand the human demographics and mesohabitat changes that appear to influence the wintering capabilities of the raptor populations.

1. Introduction

To conserve and sustain biological diversity, efforts are undertaken to monitor wildlife populations at strategic points during sensitive periods to elucidate annual changes in populations [1,2,3]. Avian populations that undertake annual migrations can be censused at bottlenecks of known flyways in a concentrated manner [1,4,5]. Alternatively, the populations can be censused either at their breeding sites in the summer [6,7] or at their overwintering sites [8,9], but these entail greater costs in time and effort because of the dispersed manner of the populations [10].

The census of raptor populations, as apex predators, is especially challenging because of their hunting behaviors in open vegetation and their lack of vocalizations on wintering grounds [11,12,13]. Moreover, it also occurs at lower than expected densities in comparison to other avian species [14]. Road transects allow to cover great distances, require minimal manpower, and large sample sizes can be obtained [13]. Road transects have proved useful in detecting declines in raptor populations and alerting the conservation community of impending crises like those of the crash of the vulture populations in India [15] and Africa [16]; the decline of wintering Harriers (Circus spp.) over 30 years across the Indian subcontinent [17]; or the response of wintering Buteos to epizootic plagues in the prey species [18].

In a comparison of point counts versus road transects, researchers found an advantage to point counts in that a greater number of individuals were spotted and a larger number were identified to the species level [12,14,19]. However, they also discovered that there were no significant differences in species richness and abundance estimates. McClure et al. [13] stressed the importance of consistency of the methodology in long-term studies. Furthermore, road transects were the most cost-effective census method to cover the large areas over which populations disperse during the breeding season and in the overwintering areas [10]. Viñuela [6] evaluated the reliability of road transects for wintering and breeding Red Kites (Milvus milvus) in Spain. He found that the variation in population density explained most of the variance of abundance indices provided by the road transects during both seasons. In addition, he found that the estimation of densities from distances did not provide more accurate results than unadjusted counts on-road transects, as was also confirmed by [20], who concluded that unadjusted counts provided the most precise results. They also found no clear effect of forest cover on the detectability of raptors because they selected open areas for hunting and concluded that evaluating raptor populations by road transects was a reliable method. Recently, ref. [13] found that road transects can be a reliable method if the consistency of collecting the data remains constant over time and will allow for comparisons between geographic regions (also see [10]).

Israel is located at the crossroads of three continents and is a major flyway for migratory birds [1] and other animals [21]. It is a well-known bottleneck for migrating raptors and other soaring birds that circumvent the Mediterranean Sea to reach their wintering grounds in Africa in the autumn and return to their breeding grounds across Eurasia in the spring [1,2]. Despite the plethora of studies on migratory raptors worldwide (e.g., Spain [6], Italy [22], Poland [23], and India [14]), and locally in Israel [24,25,26,27], no sustained survey was conducted over the years in Israel. A limited survey of the wintering raptors in Israel was undertaken in the late 1980s [28], and since then, no surveys have been conducted, and none have persisted over a long period. Because Israel is a fast-developing and increasingly densely populated country [29], there is a great paucity of information about the migration roosts that remain in the region for the interim period between the autumn and spring migrations and for those that overwinter in the area. In addition, the study area is considered to be an Important Bird Area (IBA) by Birdlife International [30]. The purpose of the study was to evaluate species composition and long-term population trends for the past four decades.

2. Methods

In Israel, Ezra Hadad (EH), the lead author, initiated a national project in the mid-1980s [31], but it did not last long at the national level [28]. However, EH consistently collected the data from that initial survey he first undertook in 1985 in the framework of the national census and for the next 38 years used the same census technique, in the same region, on the same roads, in the Judea Region of Central Israel; adhering to the consistency requirements for a reliable survey, as suggested later [13]. Hence, this provides a unique consistent set of data over 38 years on the poorly known subject of wintering raptor populations in central Israel.

In all of the 38 years of the survey, EH conducted a driven survey of the study area between 1–7 January, which encompasses ca. 1500 km² of Central Israel. Throughout the study period, the road surveys were conducted along the same roads and dirt roads in the framework of his work as a ranger of the Israel Nature & Parks Authority (INPA). During the census, the vehicle was driven at a speed that ranged between 25–40 km/h⁻¹. All raptors observed were noted in a notebook, taking care to avoid double counting mobile individuals. The survey was conducted throughout the day despite the reported bias in activities wherein raptors have been reported to be most active and obvious during the morning hours [32,33,34]. It was a necessity to cover the large area in one vehicle by a single team. All observations were conducted with the help of binoculars and a telescope. All raptors observed within a distance of ca. 500m on both sides of the research vehicle were included in the survey.

In addition, we collated data specifically on impacts of power lines and pylons on the Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) and Bonelli’s Eagle (Aquila fasciata) both through personal observations and a data set of the mortality incidents in the two species courtesy of the Scientific Data Department of the Israel Nature and Parks Authority. These two species were specifically targeted because of their global and regional conservation status (

Table 1. Raptor species and their numbers in the Judea region of Central Israel between the years 1985 and 2022; percent (%) is expressed as the proportion of the number of individuals (N) of a given species to the total number of birds observed. IUCN Red List (data downloaded 5 May 2022).

	Common Name	Latin Name	N	%	Status
Vultures	Griffon Vulture	Gyps fulvus	7	<0.1	Least Concern
	Black Vulture	Aegypius monachus	8	<0.1	Near Threatened
Sea Eagles	White-tailed Eagle	Haliaeetus albicilla	9	<0.1	Least Concern
Osprey	Osprey	Pandion haliaetus	17	<0.1	Least Concern
Eagles	Golden Eagle	Aquila chrysaetos	16	<0.1	Least Concern
	Imperial Eagle	Aquila heliaca	485	1.1	Vulnerable
	Lesser Spotted Eagle	Aquila pomarina	21	<0.1	Least Concern
	Spotted Eagle	Aquila clanga	439	1	Vulnerable
	Steppe Eagle	Aquila nipalensis	13	<0.1	Endangered
	Bateleur	Terathopius ecaudatus	4	<0.1	Endangered
	Short-toed Eagle	Circaetus gallicus	56	0.1	Least Concern
	Booted Eagle	Hieraaetus pennatus	25	0.1	Least Concern
	Bonelli’s Eagle	Hieraaetus fasciatus	89	0.2	Least Concern
Kites	Black Kite	Milvus migrans	26,057	59.1	Least Concern
	Black-shouldered Kite	Elanus caeruleus	673	1.5	Least Concern
Harriers	Marsh Harrier	Circus aeruginosus	2026	4.6	Least Concern
	Hen Harrier	Circus cyaneus	920	2.1	Least Concern
	Pallid Harrier	Circus macrourus	216	0.5	Near Threatened
	Montagu’s Harrier	Circus pygargus	19	<0.1	Least Concern
Buzzards	Long-legged Buzzard	Buteo rufinus	900	2	Least Concern
	Steppe Buzzard	Buteo vulpinus	2903	6.6	Least Concern
Sparrowhawks	Sparrowhawk	Accipiter nisus	885	2	Least Concern
	Goshawk	Accipiter gentilis	42	0.1	Least Concern
Falcons	Common Kestrel	Falco tinnunculus	7989	18.1	Least Concern
	Lesser Kestrel	Falco naumanni	15	<0.1	Least Concern
	Hobby	Falco subbuteo	4	<0.1	Least Concern
	Eleonora’s Falcon	Falco eleonorae	3	<0.1	Least Concern
	Peregrine	Falco peregrinus	119	0.3	Least Concern
	Barbary Falcon	Falco pelegrinoides	5	<0.1	Least Concern
	Merlin	Falco columbarius	123	0.3	Least Concern
	Saker Falcon	Falco cherrug	12	<0.1	Endangered
	Lanner Falcon	Falco biarmicus	20	<0.1	Least Concern
		Total	44,120

).

We started the analyses with the total number of identified individuals from every observed species in every given year of the study. Changes in the number of species and the total number of individuals recorded during the study period were presented as (1) the change in the number in a given year relative to the first year of the study, which was the reference year taking the value 0, and (2) the annual change in the number in year t relative to the preceding year (λ = Nt − N_t−1), based on a series of indicators from 38 years, the average annual growth rate of the number of species and individuals were calculated and expressed as a percentage of the initial numbers (38λ· 100%; [35]).

3. Study Area

The Judea Region is recognized as an Important Bird Area by Birdlife International [30]. The Judea region is divided into two geographical areas, the Judean Mountains and the Judean Plain. The Western Judean Mountains rise to a height of 600–700 m above sea level. Large streams, such as Nahal Sorek, bisect the region and have created a rough and hilly terrain. Most of the rock is hard limestone and dolomite rocks. The area is characterized by Mediterranean woods and pine groves.

The study area is characterized by rounded hills, 150–450 m above sea level, and between the hills meander many streams. All perennial streams that descend from the Judean Mountains to the east pass through the lowlands to flow into the Mediterranean Sea (Figure 1). The study area is very fertile with orchards (citrus, almonds), vineyards, and annual crops (cotton Gossypium spp., corn Zea mays, wheat Triticum aestivum, chickpeas Cicer arietinum, watermelon Citrullus lanatus, and alfalfa Medicago sativa). Many areas are covered with planted pine forests. Large areas are used for grazing sheep and cattle in different seasons.

There are many smaller flatlands in the Judean Plain, mainly in the west and the south, that are dominated by Mediterranean flora such as Common Carob (Ceratonia siliqua) and mastic tree (Pistacia lentiscus). In the eastern parts of the Judean Plain, the community is dominated by the common oak (Quercus robur), and in the rocky areas, mulberry bushes (Morus alba). The landscape of the Judean Plains is dissected by several large streams; the best known are the Sorek, Ayalon, Ela, Beit Guvrin, Lachish, and Shikma valleys. In and around the Sorek Valley, there are 25 reservoirs of effluent, most of which were established in the early 1980s to store effluent and floodwater, mainly from the Sorek Valley.

The average precipitation in the high plains is between 450–600 mm, and south of the Hala and Adorayim rivers, it decreases to 300–350 mm and continues to decrease southwards with a transition into semi-arid regions of the Northern Negev Desert.

All calculations were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, version 24.0 [36]. Throughout the text, mean values are presented with ±SD.

4. Results

During the 38-year study, we recorded a total of 44,120 individuals from 32 species. The mean number of species recorded per year was 18.7 ± 3.3 (range 14–27; Figure 2a). Furthermore, the mean number of individuals recorded per year was 1161.0 ± 1306.84 (68–7006; Figure 2b).

The most frequently observed species were: Black Kite (Milvus migrans; 59.1 % of all observed individuals), Common Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus; 18.1%), and Steppe Buzzard (Buteo vulpinus; 6.6%; Table 1).

We found an increase in the total number of individuals, where the mean increase compared to the reference year was 851.6 ± 1071.2% (Figure 3a). The average annual growth rate of the total number of individuals (λ) was 43.7 ± 158.8%. Similarly, we found an increase in the number of species during the study period, where the mean increase compared to the reference year was 17.1 ± 20.5% (Figure 3b). The average annual growth rate of the species richness (λ; based on changes in number of species in %) was 2.2 ± 16.2%.

In general, the number of wintering raptors was relatively low in the 1980s and 1990s and increased at the turn of the 21st century. Most of the species remained at high levels for the past two decades with sporadic fluctuations (Figure 4).

The vultures, sea eagle, and osprey were observed sporadically (Table 1); as were most of the eagles, except for Eastern Imperial (Aquila heliaca), Greater Spotted (Clanga clanga), Bonelli’s (A. fasciata), and Short-toed Snake (Circaetus gallicus), which were present throughout the survey in comparatively large numbers (Figure 4). Three of the four Harrier species (Circus aeruginosus, C. cyaneus, C. macrourus) wintered regularly in the Judea region (Figure 4); as did both the Buzzards (Buteo rufinus, B. vulpinus) and Eurasian Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus, Figure 4).

Amongst the Falcons, the Common Kestrel was the most abundant (Table 1, Figure 4), but the Peregrine Falcon (F. peregrinus) and the Merlin (F. columbarius) were regular wintering species (Figure 4). Species of special interest were Black Kite and the Black-shouldered Kite, where the first showed a steady increase through the years (Figure 4); the Black-shouldered Kite started wintering in the region in 2010 but then its numbers increased greatly and individuals that established territories have become a new breeding species to the region (Figure 4).

In our study of the mortality of the Eastern Imperial Eagle (Figure 5) and Bonelli’s Eagle, the age of all Bonelli’s Eagle (N = 32; 18 juveniles, 14 adults) was determined but not the Eastern Imperial Eagle (N = 23; 6 juveniles, 11 adults, 6 unidentified; Figure 6).

5. Discussion

It is of interest that in our 38-year study, no declines or complete disappearance of a wintering species was documented. Inter-seasonal fluctuations are to be expected but the trends suggest that for the past two decades, the number of species and the number of total raptors observed wintering in the Judea region of Israel are increasing, unlike most other studies that have documented declines [16,17]. This is of importance because 7 (22%) of the 32 raptor species are registered as either Endangered (N = 3), Near Threatened (N = 2), or vulnerable (N = 2) by the International Union for Conservation of Nature [38].

The Black Vulture once bred in Israel but became locally extinct owing to changes in land-use practices with reduced grazing stock in the wild and poisonings [39]. In recent decades, the number of wintering Black Vulture is slowly increasing, but two individuals were found dead in another poisoning incident in Northern Israel in 2015 (Figure 7).

Similarly, the number of wintering Eastern Imperial Eagles is increasing and can be found in four major concentrations. In a national survey in 2011–2012, the number of Eastern Imperial Eagles observed was 33 in the Hula Valley, 10 in the Jezreel Valley, 35 in the Judea region, and 31 in the Negev, i.e., a total of 109 individuals [39]. The numbers in the Judea region have slightly decreased since 2015. Over the years, 23 individuals have died of electrocution or poisoning [39]. Since site fidelity is known in the species [40], it is possible that the decrease is related to mortality, and that the region is unsustainable to Eastern Imperial Eagle populations unless urgent measures are undertaken to retrofit all electric pylons in the region and prevent future mortality by electrocution. Furthermore, the use of herbicides, whether used as pesticides or fertilizers [41], must be regulated strictly and their applications monitored.

The Spotted Eagle also winter in the same areas as the Eastern Imperial Eagles and several times foraged simultaneously in the same habitats [39]. The species also became locally extinct as a breeding species because of the widespread agricultural poisonings of the 1950s and the 1970s in Israel [42,43] (Figure 8).

A species of special interest, because it is rarely observed outside Africa, that was first observed on 30 January 2016 was a Bateleur (Terathopius ecaudatus) at Bet Nir (31°38″37 N, 34°52″23 E; Figure 9). Another observation of the species was on 31 May 2016 near the city of Kiryat Gat, and it remained in the area for the next three years [44].

The Judea region, with its low crops and agricultural fields, appears to be of importance for the sustenance of wintering Marsh Harrier and Hen Harrier. Their numbers have especially grown since the turn of the century, and the region appears to be conducive to this family of raptors.

The majority of the overwintering species can be split into three groups—those that remained constant, others that showed an increase around the year 2000, and others that increased since 2015. Those that have remained constant are the Eurasian Sparrowhawk and Goshawk. Species that have increased around the year 2000 are Eastern Imperial Eagle, Spotted Eagle, Marsh Harrier, Hen Harrier, and Black Kite. Species whose numbers have increased since 2015 are the Short-toed Snake Eagle, Bonelli’s Eagle, Pallid Harrier, Long-legged Buzzard, Steppe Buzzard, Common Kestrel, Merlin, Peregrine, and the Black-shouldered Kite.

In the Mojave Desert, the numbers of raptors associated with anthropogenic developments had increased, whereas other sensitive species that are usually not associated with humans had decreased [10]. Similarly, [45] found that the wintering raptor community in Armenia was associated mainly with permanent crops that appeared to support higher densities of prey during the winter. Although we have not collated data about the human development of the study area in the past four decades, Israel is a very fast developing country with a great increase in human population mainly because of the influx of immigrants, and there is a very high density in the region [29]. Future studies will have to consider our data with that of the land-use changes in the region to understand the positive changes in the wintering raptor population in the Judea region of Central Israel and whether these changes will allow the region to sustain large numbers of over-wintering raptors [46].

Examples of such changes are the opening or closure of landfills, sewage treatment plants, recycling installations, water reservoirs, etc. The Dalila recycling facility near Kfar Menachem (31°43″48 N, 34°49″51 E) is an example of such instantaneous changes. It opened in 2002, operated until 2014, and processed the residues of the regional sewage treatment facility, run-off from the dairy farms, and organic domestic waste. In the vicinity, there are also several reservoirs, and together they attracted large numbers of raptors during the winter, especially Black Kites. Similarly, the Kharuvit landfill for domestic waste near Sdot Micha (31°43″16 N, 34°55″14 E), which has been operational since 1990, also attracts large numbers of Black Kites. In the winter of 2007, a concentration of ca. 2500 Black Kites occurred at Moshav Noam (31°33″54 N, 34°47″09 E) because of an exceptional die out of chickens and sheep that were discarded in a stand of Eucalyptus trees.

To sustain the wintering raptor populations, it will also be of importance to understand how the species coexist for several months in the region and the niche separation on four major axes—prey, predation, temporal, and geographical [47,48]. It is also important to understand the geophysical species-specific distribution that can cover great distances. In 2009, we followed flocks of Black Kites that roosted at Revadim (31°46″14 N, 34°49″04 E) but flew ca. 60 km to Eshel HaNasi (31°19″23 N, 34°41″20 E) while foraging for food, especially in garbage dumps. On another occasion, we visually tracked flocks that roosted at Eshel HaNasi up to Rosh Haayin (32°05″04 N, 34°57″57 E), a distance of ca. 90 km.

In addition, the subject of land-use changes for agricultural purposes should be studied. The extensive agricultural developments in the Judea region and the turnover of crops lead to periodic outbursts of rodents [49], mostly Günther’s vole (Microtus guentheri), accompanied by Tristram’s jird (Meriones tristrami) and house mice (Mus musculus) [50]. We observed such population outbursts in the winters of 1985–1987 and 2015–2016 (Pers. Obs.). We assume that the high density of rodents could attract large numbers of raptors from a wide range of species (Short-toed Snake Eagle, Steppe Eagle, Eastern Imperial Eagle, Spotted Eagle, Booted Eagle, Steppe Buzzard, and Harrier spp.) and sustain them for the winter [51].

A species of special interest was a pair of Rough-legged Buzzard (B. lagopus), which are rare in Israel. Moreover, we observed groups of up to 20 Short-eared Owls (Asio flammeus), the largest concentrations ever recorded in Israel, roosting near the fields and foraging in them [50]. Following the population outburst of the rodents, three pairs of Short-eared Owls bred in the immediate area, an unprecedented occurrence. In November 2020, we also evidenced a population outburst of rodents. In the relatively small area between Bet Nir and Galon (31°38″00 N, 34°50″56 E; ca. 2.5 km), we observed concentrations of Short-toed Snake Eagle, Steppe Eagle, Eastern Imperial Eagle, Spotted Eagle, and Booted Eagle, Long-legged Buzzard, Marsh Harrier, Hen Harrier, and again a Bateleur.

However, one must also be careful in the interpretation of the present data at the regional scale because it is limited to the Judea region and there are no comparable data to understand if this is a country-wide phenomenon or localized. Paprocki et al. [52] found that species distributions are shifting towards the poles in response to global climate change. The researchers found that six raptor species that they evaluated in North America showed significant poleward shifts in their wintering distributions. They recommended that management studies should not take into account that population changes reflect local habitats, but must also look at the bigger picture at the regional and continental levels. Thus, although there are no comparable long-term data sets such as this study from the Judea region, a much more detailed study of many of the environmental and anthropogenic influences must be considered to try and understand the positive population trends we have recorded and to check if the changes we have documented are complemented in northern Israel, and maybe even Lebanon or Turkey.

Viñuela [6], in a study of Red Kites, found that winter roost counts made in areas of high breeding density underestimated the real populations because resident raptors usually do not use roosts. Similarly, the populations of Common Kestrel, Eurasian Sparrowhawk, and Black-shouldered Kite, all now breeding species in the region, may have influenced the numbers observed for each of these species. However, because none of these species roost or hunt gregariously out of the breeding season, we are convinced that they have not considerably influenced our data.

Common Kestrel has always been present as a common breeding species in the region, but not the Eurasian Sparrowhawk and Black-shouldered Kite. The Eurasian Sparrowhawk was extirpated from Israel in the 1950s owing to large-scale agriculture-related poisonings [42,43] but has since recovered, and their populations are re-establishing themselves in the planted forests [53,54]. Shirihai [53] considered the species to be a very rare breeder. We now have conclusive proof that the species is well established in Israel and large numbers breed in the Judea region (E. Hadad, R. Yosef, unpubl. Data). The Black-shouldered Kite was considered to be “accidental” in Israel [53] but has since established breeding populations in Israel [55], initially in northern Israel, and is now a common, irruptive breeding species in the study area. The species is of global interest because the Asian subspecies E. c. vociferous has shown rapid range expansion to the west in the past 20 years and was first observed in Iraq [56,57] and in Saudi Arabia [58], and now Israel. The Israeli scientific and ornithological communities have accepted this avian invasion without concern, unlike many others (e.g., Common Myna Acridotheres tristis [59], little fire ant Wasmannia auropunctata [60], and Indian House Crow Corvus splendens [61]).

From the conservation point of view, power-line mortality appears to be the biggest threat to the wintering raptors [62]. Hadad and Moyal [37] estimated that of an annual, estimated wintering population of 200 Eastern Imperial Eagles in all of Israel, ca. 30 (15%) individuals were killed by power-lines and associated pylons. The above is further compounded in that the Eastern Imperials are wintering species but the Bonelli’s Eagle is also breeding in Israel. It is considered a critically endangered species in Israel and its breeding population has plummeted in Israel from ca. 60 pairs in the 1960s to 10 pairs at present, which are widely dispersed across the country [63]. However, the loss of such large numbers of young (56%) to power-lines raises a red flag about the sustainability of the small population that exists in Israel. He reported that ca. 70% of all Bonelli’s Eagle mortality in Israel was a result of electrocution, and that the species could become extinct by 2030. He also suggested that the proximity of electric pylons to water reservoirs contributed the most to the mortality by electrocution in the species. Similarly, in Portugal, Bonelli’s Eagle was also attracted to power lines [64] and is considered to be amongst the main causes of mortality in the species throughout its breeding range [65,66]. We recommended that the relevant authorities implement the building of raptor-friendly pylons or retrofit them with preventive apparatus to avoid continued avian mortality throughout Israel.

One must also take into account that the data we present is a small part of a much larger picture because we did not survey the pylons regularly and, in many cases, the carcasses were removed by the relevant employees or scavenging wildlife. Furthermore, our data includes only those whose carcasses were found and their identification verified. We feel that although the data we present is representative of the true picture, the true percentage of mortality from electrocution remains unknown [67]. Moreover, there are many cases of partially electrocuted birds that succumb days and weeks later owing to the side effects and delayed physiological stress [68]. The authorities need to take note of these incidents and try to prevent the continued danger posed by those power-lines and associated pylons identified as dangerous to soaring birds in general, and raptors in particular.

In summary, our 38-year study of the wintering raptors of the Judea Region of Central Israel shows that the species richness and the numbers of wintering raptors have increased over the past two decades, and that the region can sustain such over-wintering populations. The regional sustenance is partially countered by increased mortality owing to human structures such as electric pylons and aboveground wires. The conservation of these raptors, some of which are on the IUCN Red List or listed in the Israeli Red Book, is of great importance. The authorities should try to understand which human demographics and mesohabitat changes have positively influenced the wintering capabilities of the raptor populations.