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Article

Integrating Circular Economy and Life Cycle Assessment in Virtual Water Management: A Case Study of Food Consumption Across Economic Classes in Iran

by
Mehrdad Mirabi
1,*,
Kazem Javan
2,3,4,
Mariam Darestani
2,3,4 and
Mohsen Karrabi
1
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ferdowsi University, Mashhad 9177948974, Iran
2
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Western Sydney University, Kingswood 2747, Australia
3
Advanced Engineering Materials, Centre for Advance Manufacturing, Western Sydney University, Sydney 2000, Australia
4
Centre for Infrastructure Engineering, Western Sydney University, Sydney 2000, Australia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(6), 2743; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062743
Submission received: 10 February 2025 / Revised: 3 March 2025 / Accepted: 12 March 2025 / Published: 19 March 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Economy and Life Cycle Assessment: Closing the Loop for Sustainable Resource Management)
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Abstract

:
Water scarcity is a growing global issue, especially in arid regions like Iran. Global food trade complicates water and food resource management by moving virtual water (the water used to produce goods) between regions. This study uses circular economy principles and life cycle assessment (LCA) to analyze virtual water use across income groups in Iran, focusing on food consumption. This study divided households into three groups: economically vulnerable, middle-class, and affluent. Lower-income households are more water-efficient, using 3.33 L per USD, compared with 0.81 L for middle-class and 0.41 L for affluent households. The per capita virtual water consumption was 3916.7 L for vulnerable groups, 3481.6 L for middle-class, and 3418 L for affluent groups—all higher than the global average. This is because they rely on low-water foods like bread and legumes. Additionally, affluent households consume 80% more red meat, which has a high water footprint. The study calls for policies to promote water-conscious diets, optimize virtual water trade, and integrate sustainability into LCA frameworks. Aligning resource management with circular economy goals can help Iran improve water security and sustainable development.

1. Introduction

Access to sustainable water, food, and energy is vital for human survival. However, increasing mass migrations, climate events, and natural or manmade hazards make it harder for vulnerable communities, especially in less developed countries, to manage these resources. For countries like Iran, which struggle to balance rising water demand with their arid climate, the risk of a water crisis is a serious concern [1,2,3]. Unlike the traditional linear economic model of extraction, consumption, and disposal, the circular economy emphasizes the reuse, refurbishment, and recycling of materials to minimize waste and environmental impact [4,5]. Life cycle assessment (LCA) plays a crucial role in this framework by systematically evaluating the environmental performance of products and processes throughout their lifecycle [6,7]. Within this context, virtual water management emerges as a vital consideration, particularly in water-scarce regions where efficient resource utilization is critical.
Virtual water, the indirect water embedded in the production and trade of goods, is a key factor in assessing the sustainability of consumption patterns [8,9,10]. Tony Allan introduced the term “virtual water” in the 1990s to describe the total amount of water used in the production of goods, crops, or services. The term “virtual” signifies that the majority of this water is not physically present in the final product but is embedded in the production process [11]. In 2003, Hoekstra refined the definition of virtual water, describing it as the total amount of water required to produce a product, influenced by factors such as location, time, and water use efficiency. This implies that the water demand varies depending on climatic conditions, production techniques, resource management practices, and cultural factors [12]. In regions such as Iran, where water scarcity poses a significant challenge, understanding how different socioeconomic groups contribute to virtual water consumption can inform better resource allocation and policymaking [13,14]. The food sector, as a major consumer of water resources, provides an insightful case for examining the interplay between economic status, dietary preferences, and virtual water consumption [15,16,17]. By analyzing food consumption patterns across economic classes, policymakers can develop targeted interventions to promote water-efficient food systems [18,19,20].
Life cycle assessment offers a systematic approach to quantifying the environmental impact of food production, distribution, and consumption [21,22]. Integrating LCA with virtual water assessments can provide a comprehensive understanding of the sustainability of different dietary habits and food choices [16,23,24]. Through this integration, decision-makers can evaluate the overall resource efficiency of the food sector and identify opportunities to enhance circular economy strategies [25,26]. The combination of LCA and virtual water analysis enables the assessment of trade-offs in food production and consumption, highlighting areas where resource efficiency can be improved [27,28].
The disparities in food consumption patterns among economic classes significantly affect virtual water footprints [29,30,31]. While affluent populations tend to consume more water-intensive foods such as red meat, lower-income groups often rely on staple foods like bread and legumes, which have a lower virtual water footprint [32,33]. Understanding these consumption dynamics is essential for designing sustainable food policies that address both environmental and social equity concerns [34,35,36]. Promoting a balanced diet with a reduced virtual water footprint can contribute to more sustainable resource management in water-scarce regions [37,38]. Proponents of the virtual water concept argue that trading goods involves the exchange of the water used in their production, a phenomenon known as virtual water trade. This approach suggests that water-scarce countries should import water-intensive products rather than producing them domestically, thereby alleviating pressure on their limited water resources and reallocating water for higher-value economic activities [39,40,41]. A key study by Hoekstra & Hung (2005) quantified global virtual water trade using agricultural trade data from 1995 to 1999, revealing that 13% of the water used in agriculture was virtually exported rather than consumed domestically [40]. Similarly, Ardakanian & Sohrabi (2006) examined virtual water trade in Iran, highlighting its strategic importance for national water security. Their findings suggest that integrating virtual water trade into national water policies can enhance access to global water resources while mitigating pressure on Iran’s domestic water supplies [42]. These studies emphasize the critical role of water in economic development and argue that effective management of virtual water trade can enable countries to prioritize water use for essential and high-value industries rather than low-value, water-intensive sectors. In 2011, Mekonnen & Hoekstra estimated the global average virtual water footprint embedded in various agricultural products, further reinforcing the significance of virtual water in global trade [43]. Building on this, Vanham et al. (2013) assessed the virtual water content in different dietary patterns, including a current diet, a healthy diet, a vegetarian diet, and a combined diet. Their findings suggest that dietary modifications could enhance water efficiency and promote sustainable consumption practices [44].
Virtual water research is inherently interdisciplinary, encompassing hydrology, socioeconomics, and ecological sustainability. As such, future research should integrate insights from these fields in order to develop more comprehensive water management strategies. The systematic incorporation of socio-economic factors into virtual water studies can help enhance water policies, optimize water use efficiency, and support sustainable water management frameworks [45,46,47]. Huang et al. (2022) examined both physical water use and virtual water flows in Beijing between 2002 and 2017, discovering that, while physical water consumption declined from 2.43 to 1.98 billion cubic meters, virtual water imports increased from 1.76 to 3.09 billion cubic meters, primarily benefiting agriculture and industry [48]. These findings underscore the equal importance of both physical and virtual water flows in ensuring water security and sustainable development. More recently, Han et al. (2023) proposed an integrated model to assess the environmental and economic impacts of virtual water trade, providing critical insights for optimizing water trading strategies at regional, national, and global levels [49]. These evolving studies demonstrate that virtual water trade is a powerful tool for sustainable water resource management, offering pathways for enhanced economic efficiency, environmental sustainability, and resilience to water scarcity.
Iran’s water crisis highlights the need for an integrated approach that combines circular economy principles, life cycle thinking, and virtual water management to enhance sustainable resource use. Each of these frameworks contributes uniquely: circular economy strategies maximize efficiency and reuse at the system level, LCA provides the tools to measure and minimize environmental impacts, and virtual water analysis extends the scope to include indirect water use in trade and consumption. This study aims to integrate these approaches to evaluate virtual water consumption across different economic classes in Iran, with a particular focus on food consumption patterns. By classifying households into economically vulnerable, middle-class, and affluent groups, this research examines disparities in virtual water efficiency and assesses how income levels influence dietary choices and water use. The findings will help inform policy interventions that promote water-efficient diets, optimize virtual water trade, and enhance agricultural sustainability. Aligning resource management strategies with circular economy objectives can improve food security, reduce water stress, and support sustainable development in water-scarce regions like Iran.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Case Study

In the Middle East, Iran encompasses a vast expanse spanning 1648,195 km3 and is home to around 84 million individuals. Characterized by an arid and semi-arid climate, the nation receives a modest annual average rainfall of 250 mm, roughly 30% of this precipitation manifesting as snowfall. Iran faces constraints in surface water and groundwater reserves, accentuated by pronounced variations in supply and demand due to its diverse geographical features [50].
The foremost consumer of water resources is the agricultural domain, followed by the water supply sectors serving urban and rural areas and the mining industry. Presently, Iran confronts multifaceted challenges of societal, economic, and environmental natures. These challenges encompass a shift from autocracy driven by ideology to a more democratic trajectory, elevated unemployment rates, the impact of international sanctions, reliance on exports of oil and gas, the decline of glaciers attributed to climate shifts, unwarranted groundwater depletion from agricultural utilization, and the diminished precipitation patterns observed over recent decades. This intricate problem engenders intricate outcomes, extending its repercussions not only to the populace of Iran but also generating global ramifications, particularly influencing the stability of the Middle East region [50].

2.2. Socioeconomic Classification and Virtual Water Implications

To effectively analyze the relationship between food consumption, virtual water, and economic status, the population was classified into three broad economic classes: vulnerable, middle-class, and affluent [51,52]. This classification was based on income deciles provided by the Statistical Center of Iran, which categorizes households according to their monthly income and expenditure [53,54]. Figure 1 illustrates the total annual expenditure and income of households, with Figure 1A depicting the total annual expenditure of urban households, Figure 1B showing the total annual income of urban households, Figure 1C presenting the total annual expenditure of rural households, and Figure 1D displaying the total annual income of rural households. Additionally, the figures classify households into five income categories: very low, low, middle, high, and very high. As expected, households in higher deciles exhibit greater financial stability and consumption capacity, making them more affluent (Figure 2).
Before defining economic classes using income deciles, it is essential to clarify the poverty line, a critical factor in determining household financial standing. The poverty line represents the minimum income required for a household to maintain a basic standard of living, taking into account essential expenses. However, the officially reported poverty threshold may differ slightly depending on unavoidable household expenditures. The poverty line reflects a scenario in which all discretionary expenses have been eliminated, leaving only essential costs required for survival.
Recent statistical reports highlight considerable fluctuations in the income and expenditure of Iranian households. While some households have adapted by increasing their income, others face persistent deficits, pushing them below the poverty line. In 2015, experts estimated that the poverty line for a five-member household in Tehran was approximately USD 741.17 per month, while the same household in other regions of Iran required around USD 411.76 monthly to meet basic needs. These estimates underscore regional economic disparities and the varying cost of living across the country [55,56].
Based on income thresholds, the classification of economic classes is as follows: Households in the 1st and 2nd deciles, earning less than USD 54.9 per month, are categorized as economically vulnerable. The middle-class category includes households in the 3rd to 6th deciles, with monthly incomes below USD 137.25. Those in higher deciles, with earnings exceeding this threshold, are classified as affluent. This classification provides a foundation for examining variations in food consumption patterns and their corresponding virtual water footprints across economic groups [55,56].
The disparity in income distribution directly influences household purchasing power and dietary choices, ultimately affecting the virtual water embedded in their food consumption. Lower-income groups tend to prioritize affordable staple foods with lower water footprints, such as bread and legumes, while affluent households consume greater quantities of water-intensive products like red meat and dairy. These trends highlight the critical role of economic status in shaping sustainable consumption behaviors and the necessity of targeted interventions to enhance water conservation in food production and consumption [55].

2.3. Composition of the Consumer Basket and Virtual Water Considerations

The Central Bank of Iran publishes periodic reports on the composition of the consumer basket used to calculate national inflation rates. These reports detail the specific commodities, their assigned values, and their relative importance within the economy. The consumer basket is categorized into eight primary groups: “food, beverages, and tobacco”, “clothing and footwear”, “housing, fuel, and lighting”, “house furniture, goods, and services”, “transport and communications”, “healthcare”, “education and entertainment”, and “other goods and services.” This basket encompasses 310 essential goods and services, with 100 to 250 price assessments conducted monthly to track inflation trends [57].
Among these categories, the “food, beverages, and tobacco” group holds the highest importance factor at 32.45%. Given that food and beverages account for nearly 90% of per capita virtual water consumption—approximately 3000 L per person per day on a global average—this study focuses primarily on this segment of the consumer basket [55,58]. Table 1 presents the per capita food consumption data for Iranians, as reported by the Ministry of Health and Medical Education. Additionally, Table 2, based on a report from the Statistical Center of Iran, provides insights into the proportional allocation of different food categories across various income deciles.
By analyzing the composition of the consumer basket through the lens of virtual water consumption, this research seeks to highlight how economic status influences dietary patterns and resource utilization. Understanding these consumption behaviors is critical for devising strategies to enhance food security while promoting efficient water use within the framework of the circular economy.

3. Results and Discussion

After categorizing the income deciles into three economic classes—economically vulnerable, middle-class, and affluent—the data presented in Table 2 estimate the per capita consumption of various food categories across these groups. The analysis of virtual water consumption across different socioeconomic strata in Iran reveals notable trends in dietary habits and their corresponding resource utilization.
Cereal consumption, a fundamental dietary component, increases with income, suggesting that higher-income groups incorporate more diverse cereal products into their diet. In contrast, bread consumption declines as income rises, indicating a greater dependence on bread among lower-income households, likely due to its affordability. A marked increase in biscuit consumption is observed in the 4th and 6th deciles, suggesting a stronger preference for processed snack foods within these economic segments. Red meat consumption follows a progressive trend, rising with income levels, as it is often perceived as a premium protein source. Conversely, fruit consumption exhibits a direct correlation with income, while vegetable consumption demonstrates an inverse trend, highlighting dietary shifts influenced by affordability and accessibility.
Sugar consumption peaks in the 7th and 8th deciles, potentially reflecting a preference for sugar-laden products in these groups. Notably, tobacco consumption is highest in the 4th and 6th deciles, indicating socioeconomic factors that may influence tobacco use patterns. These findings provide a comprehensive perspective on how dietary preferences and virtual water consumption vary across socioeconomic classifications in Iran, offering critical insights into resource utilization and food security.
Figure 3 presents the comparative analysis of red meat and bread consumption across different socioeconomic groups in Iran. Higher-income groups display a greater inclination towards red meat consumption, reinforcing its status as a costly protein source, while economically vulnerable groups depend more on bread as a staple food. Given that national food consumption estimates from the Ministry of Health provide an average for the population, per capita consumption by each economic class is extrapolated proportionally from middle-class figures. The results of these calculations are summarized in Table 3.
It is important to note that all values in Table 3 are expressed in grams per day, with the exception of milk and beverages (tea, coffee, and juice), which are quantified in liters. As 1 g of milk is approximately equivalent to 1 milliliter, the same unit can be utilized in subsequent calculations to maintain consistency.
By integrating these findings within a circular economy framework, this study emphasizes the significance of dietary choices in virtual water management. Understanding how economic disparities influence food consumption and associated virtual water footprints enables policymakers to design targeted strategies for promoting sustainable food systems. Encouraging water-efficient diets, optimizing agricultural production, and reducing the reliance on high-virtual-water food items will be crucial steps toward enhancing resource conservation and resilience in water-scarce regions such as Iran.

3.1. Virtual Water Calculations

Having the estimated amount of each food category in the food basket that is consumed by each population class, we use the data of Table 3 to break each food category into several subcategories and then calculate the amount of virtual water in each subcategory based on the available information.
Then, we use the per capita consumption of each food category by each population class (Table 3) and the virtual water of food subcategories (Table 4) to calculate the virtual water in the food basket of each population class. The results are presented in Figure 4.
The above chart illustrates exciting facts about the virtual water in the food basket of the Iranian population. For example, while breads do not have a significantly higher unit weight than other products, there is a significant difference between population classes in terms of the virtual water consumed in this food category, which is caused by the high per capita consumption of this product by economically vulnerable Iranians. In contrast, affluent Iranians consume more virtual water in the red meat category than other population classes, as meat or its products are often present in one or two of their daily meals. By comparing the virtual water consumption in red meat and poultry meat categories, one can see an inverse relationship between the figures obtained for the three population classes. This suggests that poorer people use cheaper poultry instead of more expensive red meat. The above results indicate that, in the economically vulnerable sections of the Iranian population, the most virtual water is consumed in the form of bread, dairy products, and legumes. This is because this group of people cannot afford to consume red meat as often as other groups do, so they replace these meals with foods consumed with bread or containing large amounts of legumes.
In the middle-class section of the population, the most virtual water is consumed in red meat and dairy products, followed by legumes, bread, and cereals. The affluent section of the Iranian population has a high per capita consumption of red meat, which has extensive virtual water content. Hence, red meat is the dominant form of virtual water consumed by this section of society.
According to these results, there is no significant difference between the total amount of virtual water in the food basket of economically vulnerable, middle-class, and affluent Iranian households (Table 3). However, according to the data gathered from the Statistical Center and the Central Bank of Iran, affluent Iranians consume 80% more red meat (which has the highest water footprint among the examined foods) than economically vulnerable citizens, a gap that is closed by the latter group’s higher per capita consumption of other food items.
With the emergence of water crises in water-scarce parts of the world, many countries are re-examining their plans and policies with more attention to virtual water. Such examinations show that, given the limitations of water resources, it is not feasible to allocate water to low-yield activities, particularly in the agriculture sector.
Hence, populous countries located in water-scarce regions will ultimately have to readjust their industrial and development strategies according to the virtual water content of imported and exported goods and to break free from a reliance on the production of water-intensive products that put extra pressure on their strained water resources. Iran is located in an arid and semi-arid region of western Asia, considered one of the world’s most vulnerable regions in terms of water resources. This region has lower precipitation and higher evaporation than the global average, and its water problems are exacerbated by the irregular spatial and temporal distributions of water resources over the region. Water-scarce countries can regulate their economy to encourage the import and discourage the export of products with high virtual water content and do the opposite for products with low virtual water content. This viewpoint will allow these countries to divide the benefits of water instead of rationing water and aggravating the crisis. However, it should be noted that water security and food security are both significant objectives in the path toward sustainable development and that efficient human resource management. As water resources are direct inputs for food production (agriculture) and population growth creates competition for limited water resources, the nexus approach—studying water security and food security alongside energy security, as well as their interactions with each other—is perhaps the most suitable strategy for this discussion.

3.2. Virtual Water Trade

As water scarcity intensifies globally, virtual water trade has emerged as a critical strategy for balancing national and regional water demands [60]. Countries experiencing chronic water shortages, such as Iran, must strategically assess the virtual water content of their imports and exports to optimize resource allocation.
Historical data suggest that nations with constrained water resources should prioritize the import of high-virtual-water-content products while exporting commodities with lower water footprints. For instance, in 1995, Japan imported crops that required 16.6 km3 of water for production in the United States, whereas cultivating the same crops domestically would have required 28.1 km3 of water. This trade decision resulted in a global water savings of 11.5 km3 [61]. Similarly, between 1997 and 2001, Iran was identified as the world’s eighth-largest net importer of virtual water, importing approximately 19 billion m3 while exporting only 5 billion m3 [62,63]. Despite the advantages of virtual water trade, certain paradoxes persist. Many water-scarce nations, including Iran, Chad, and Syria, continue to export water-intensive products, exacerbating domestic water stress. Meanwhile, water-rich countries such as Japan and Portugal engage in substantial virtual water imports. On a domestic level, internal virtual water trade patterns in countries like India, China, and Iran indicate that agricultural production often shifts from water-stressed regions to water-abundant areas, further complicating sustainable resource management.
The assessment of virtual water efficiency reveals substantial disparities in water resource utilization among different economic groups in Iran. Economically vulnerable households exhibit the highest virtual water efficiency, consuming approximately 3.33 L per USD spent, while middle-class households consume 0.81 L per USD, and affluent households show the lowest efficiency at 0.41 L per USD spent (Table 5). This trend suggests that lower-income households rely predominantly on staple foods such as bread, legumes, and dairy products, which have relatively lower virtual water footprints. In contrast, higher-income groups consume more water-intensive foods, such as red meat and dairy, leading to lower overall virtual water efficiency. From a sustainability standpoint, these findings emphasize the need for targeted interventions to improve water use efficiency while promoting nutritional balance. Given that economically vulnerable populations maximize water efficiency due to constrained financial resources, policies should focus on ensuring equitable access to a diverse and nutritious food supply while maintaining sustainable water consumption levels. Circular economy strategies, including promoting plant-based diets, optimizing virtual water trade, and integrating virtual water metrics into LCA can help balance resource efficiency with food security. Additionally, public awareness initiatives and economic instruments, such as taxation on high-water-footprint products, can encourage sustainable dietary choices across all socioeconomic groups. By adopting policies that align with circular economy principles, Iran can enhance its resilience to water scarcity while fostering a more sustainable and equitable food system.
To align virtual water trade policies with circular economy objectives, policymakers must integrate LCA-based assessments to optimize trade flows and promote sustainable consumption. By prioritizing the importation of high-water-footprint goods and reducing the reliance on domestic production of water-intensive products, nations can alleviate pressure on their already strained water resources while enhancing long-term sustainability.

4. Discussion

The findings of this study highlight significant disparities in virtual water consumption across different socioeconomic groups in Iran, emphasizing the role of dietary habits in water resource utilization. The results indicate that economically vulnerable populations rely heavily on staple foods such as bread, legumes, and dairy products, which have a lower virtual water footprint. In contrast, affluent households consume significantly more water-intensive foods, such as red meat and dairy, contributing to a higher per capita virtual water consumption. While total virtual water use appears relatively balanced across income groups, with vulnerable, middle-class, and affluent individuals consuming 3916.7, 3481.6, and 3418 L per person per day, respectively, these figures exceed the global average by respective proportions of 28%, 14%, and 12%. This suggests that excessive water use is a nationwide issue, not limited to specific economic classes.
These results align with findings from Mekonnen and Hoekstra (2011), who analyzed global virtual water footprints and demonstrated that wealthier nations and higher-income groups tend to consume more water-intensive products, particularly red meat and dairy [43]. Similarly, Vanham et al. (2013) found that shifting to more plant-based diets in European countries could significantly reduce virtual water consumption, reinforcing the importance of dietary modifications as a key strategy for sustainable water management [44].
From a circular economy perspective, these findings underscore the necessity of promoting sustainable agricultural practices, reducing food waste, and encouraging dietary shifts to improve resource efficiency. Encouraging the consumption of low-water-footprint foods, integrating virtual water considerations into LCA frameworks, and optimizing virtual water trade policies are key strategies for mitigating water stress. Studies by Hoekstra and Chapagain (2007) indicate that virtual water trade is a viable solution for water-scarce regions, supporting the argument that Iran could reduce its domestic water footprint by importing high-water-content crops rather than producing them locally [39].
To achieve long-term sustainability, a multi-stakeholder approach involving policymakers, agricultural producers, and consumers is required. Public awareness campaigns can help educate consumers on the impact of their food choices on virtual water use, while regulatory measures can support sustainable food production. Blanco-Gutiérrez et al. (2013) have shown how Spain managed virtual water resources by shifting crop production to align with water availability, a model that could be adapted to Iran’s agricultural sector [19]. Furthermore, integrating virtual water assessments into national economic planning can enhance water resource allocation, reduce food insecurity, and strengthen long-term environmental resilience.
Finally, the concept of virtual water trade presents an opportunity for Iran to balance domestic water demand. Countries like Japan and Spain have successfully managed water-intensive food imports while focusing domestic production on low-water-footprint crops. Studies by Huang et al. (2022) on China’s virtual water flows demonstrate how adjusting import–export policies can help mitigate water stress, further supporting Iran’s need to optimize virtual water trade strategies. This approach aligns with global sustainability goals, particularly SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) and SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), reinforcing the need for integrated water management policies in water-scarce regions [48].
By comparing these results with global case studies, it becomes evident that a combination of dietary shifts, optimized virtual water trade, and sustainable agriculture can effectively reduce Iran’s water footprint while maintaining food security and economic stability.

5. Conclusions

Monitoring and reducing per capita virtual water consumption is crucial for achieving sustainable development, particularly in water-scarce regions. Research indicates that food and beverages account for approximately 90% of an individual’s total virtual water footprint. Analyzing the food baskets of different economic groups provides valuable insights into national production and consumption patterns, enabling policymakers to develop strategies for reducing virtual water use and improving resource efficiency.
This study, based on data from Iran’s Statistical Center and Central Bank, found minimal differences in total virtual water consumption across economic classes. The per capita virtual water consumption for economically vulnerable, middle-class, and affluent Iranians was 3916.7 L, 3481.6 L, and 3418 L per person per day, respectively. These figures exceed the global average by 28%, 14%, and 12%, respectively, indicating that excessive virtual water use is a nationwide issue, irrespective of economic status. This highlights the need for urgent policy interventions to enhance water efficiency and optimize food production and consumption patterns.
To address this issue, Iran should reassess its agricultural production strategies, leveraging virtual water trade to import water-intensive products while promoting sustainable dietary shifts. Reducing the consumption of high-virtual-water foods such as sugar, oil, animal fats, and red meat (which requires 15,000 L of water per kg) and encouraging a higher intake of fruits, vegetables, and fish can improve water conservation, public health, and food security.
This study underscores the complex relationship between food consumption, virtual water use, and economic status in Iran. While vulnerable populations consume more virtual water overall, they are more efficient per USD spent, whereas affluent groups tend to consume disproportionately high amounts of virtual water due to water-intensive dietary habits. To enhance virtual water efficiency and reduce national water stress, several policy recommendations should be implemented. First, promoting plant-based diets and optimizing agricultural water use through sustainable farming techniques can significantly reduce water consumption in food production. Additionally, leveraging virtual water trade to manage domestic water demand and prioritize high-efficiency crops will help balance resource allocation. Public awareness campaigns should be launched to educate consumers on the impact of food choices on virtual water consumption, encouraging more sustainable dietary habits. Finally, integrating virtual water assessments into national economic planning will enhance water resource allocation and policy effectiveness, ensuring a more resilient and sustainable approach to water management.
By adopting these strategies, Iran can mitigate water scarcity, enhance food security, and transition toward a more sustainable, circular economy that prioritizes resource efficiency and long-term environmental resilience.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.M.; Methodology, K.J.; Resources, M.M.; Data curation, M.M.; Writing—original draft, M.M.; Writing—review & editing, K.J., M.D. and M.K.; Project administration, K.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article; further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Sustainability 17 02743 g001
Figure 1. (A) Total annual expenditure of urban households. (B) Total annual income of urban households. (C) Total annual expenditure of rural households. (D) Total annual income of rural households [55].
Figure 1. (A) Total annual expenditure of urban households. (B) Total annual income of urban households. (C) Total annual expenditure of rural households. (D) Total annual income of rural households [55].
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Figure 2. Income deciles in Iran [55].
Figure 2. Income deciles in Iran [55].
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Figure 3. Assessing the consumption of red meat and bread across various socioeconomic strata in Iran.
Figure 3. Assessing the consumption of red meat and bread across various socioeconomic strata in Iran.
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Figure 4. Virtual water in the food basket of economically vulnerable, middle-class, and affluent Iranians (per capita per day).
Figure 4. Virtual water in the food basket of economically vulnerable, middle-class, and affluent Iranians (per capita per day).
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Table 1. Per capita daily food consumption in Iran [59].
Table 1. Per capita daily food consumption in Iran [59].
Food ItemPer Capita Daily Consumption—Iran (g)Per Capita Daily Consumption—World Average (g)
Bread32068
Rice10060
Noodles20---
Legumes3360
Potato70---
Vegetables560712
Fruits260400
Red meat50100
Poultry meat67---
Fish meat2550
Egg2566
Milk240822
Yogurt67---
Cheese33---
Butter8---
Oil40---
Sugar4514
Table 2. Breakdown of food expenses of Iranian households by income decile [55].
Table 2. Breakdown of food expenses of Iranian households by income decile [55].
Food Item1st Decile2nd Decile3rd Decile4th Decile5th Decile6th Decile7th Decile8th Decile9th Decile10th Decile
Cereals9.4010.7014.3014.7013.5013.9014.4016.4015.7018.00
Breads9.606.305.404.804.504.003.703.403.002.40
Flour and noodles4.004.001.901.701.601.601.501.401.401.10
Biscuits1.601.901.904.101.904.404.304.402.402.80
Red meat8.9010.4011.0011.6014.8014.8014.0014.0014.0016.50
Other meats13.9013.3014.4011.6011.4011.0010.809.7010.109.00
Fish and shrimp1.904.004.304.704.903.003.403.503.704.00
Milk3.703.303.403.404.904.804.704.904.802.70
Dairy products6.906.706.506.406.406.506.306.306.406.00
Oil5.305.105.304.504.304.003.703.703.102.90
Fruits7.408.508.609.409.009.809.7010.0010.1010.20
Dried fruit1.604.104.402.604.903.003.003.303.804.00
Vegetables13.8014.8014.7014.3011.9011.8011.5010.7010.508.80
Sweets4.104.101.901.801.601.501.401.301.201.00
Sugar1.501.501.601.701.801.904.104.002.202.40
Spices3.503.503.703.603.804.003.403.303.203.00
Tea and coffee4.504.504.504.504.103.403.903.603.803.50
Tobacco3.203.204.803.404.904.602.402.301.801.70
Table 3. Food consumption by economically vulnerable, middle-class, and affluent Iranians.
Table 3. Food consumption by economically vulnerable, middle-class, and affluent Iranians.
AffluentMiddle-ClassEconomically VulnerableFood Item
Average of DecilesRelative to Middle-ClassConsumption (Grams/Day)Average of DecilesConsumption (Grams/Day)Average of DecilesRelative to Middle-ClassConsumption (Grams/Day)
20.08108.19129.8318.5612015.985.67102.80Cereals
3.1366.84213.904.683207.95170.05544.17Breads
1.3579.4126.211.7334235.2977.65Legumes
15.63129.7164.8512.05508.6571.7835.89Red meat
9.981.8254.8212.16713.6112.475.31Other meats
4.18112.0628.023.73252.7874.5318.63Fish
4.28103.64248.734.132403.5485.82205.96Milk
6.2396.64104.376.451086.8105.43113.86Dairy products
0.3581.420.350.43250.48111.6327.91Egg
4.187.2334.894.7405.2110.6444.26oil
10108.7282.619.22607.9586.41224.67Fruits
3.53109.1315.283.23142.8588.2412.35Dried fruit
10.3878.75496.1113.1863014.3108.54683.80Vegetables
3.18181.4381.641.75451.585.7138.57Sugar
3.789.72.964.133.34.5109.093.60Tea and coffee
Table 4. Virtual water contained in the food items of Iranian household food basket.
Table 4. Virtual water contained in the food items of Iranian household food basket.
Food CategorySubcategoryVirtual Water (L/kg)
CerealsRice4191
Noodles1849
BreadsBread1335
LegumesBean3160
Pea and split pea10,720
Lentil9750
Soybean5195
Red meatCattle15,000
Sheep8424
Poultry meatChicken4000
FishFish100
MilkMilk1000
Dairy productsCheese5000
EggEgg135
OilOil8000
Butter5553
FruitsCitrusOrange500
Tangerine1250
Sweet lemon
Pome and stone fruitsApple700
Grape840
Pomegranate671.8
Peach910
Plum714.8
Vine and bush fruitsWatermelon400
OtherBanana311.9
Kiwi113
Dried fruitPistachio11,530
Walnut2850
Peanut2782
Date3220
Sunflower seed12,000
VegetablesLeafy vegetablesLettuce237
Root vegetablesPotato250
Onion240
Bush VegetablesCucumber353
Tomato185
Eggplant550
Green bean550
SugarSugar1782
BeveragesTea144
Coffee1120
Fruit juiceOrange juice850
Table 5. Virtual Water Efficiency Analysis.
Table 5. Virtual Water Efficiency Analysis.
Economic ClassTotal Virtual Water Consumption (L)Total Expenditure (USD)Virtual Water Efficiency (L/USD)
Economically vulnerable3916.71174.893.333
Middle class3481.64309.750.807
Affluent341883.99.90.406
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Mirabi, M.; Javan, K.; Darestani, M.; Karrabi, M. Integrating Circular Economy and Life Cycle Assessment in Virtual Water Management: A Case Study of Food Consumption Across Economic Classes in Iran. Sustainability 2025, 17, 2743. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062743

AMA Style

Mirabi M, Javan K, Darestani M, Karrabi M. Integrating Circular Economy and Life Cycle Assessment in Virtual Water Management: A Case Study of Food Consumption Across Economic Classes in Iran. Sustainability. 2025; 17(6):2743. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062743

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mirabi, Mehrdad, Kazem Javan, Mariam Darestani, and Mohsen Karrabi. 2025. "Integrating Circular Economy and Life Cycle Assessment in Virtual Water Management: A Case Study of Food Consumption Across Economic Classes in Iran" Sustainability 17, no. 6: 2743. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062743

APA Style

Mirabi, M., Javan, K., Darestani, M., & Karrabi, M. (2025). Integrating Circular Economy and Life Cycle Assessment in Virtual Water Management: A Case Study of Food Consumption Across Economic Classes in Iran. Sustainability, 17(6), 2743. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062743

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