Next Article in Journal
Bitis arietans Snake Venom and Kn-Ba, a Snake Venom Serine Protease, Induce the Production of Inflammatory Mediators in THP-1 Macrophages
Next Article in Special Issue
On the Hunt for New Toxin Families Produced by a Mediterranean Strain of the Benthic Dinoflagellate Ostreopsis cf. ovata
Previous Article in Journal
Pharmacological Investigation of CC-LAAO, an L-Amino Acid Oxidase from Cerastes cerastes Snake Venom
Previous Article in Special Issue
Cell Death and Metabolic Stress in Gymnodinium catenatum Induced by Allelopathy
 
 
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Unknown Extracellular and Bioactive Metabolites of the Genus Alexandrium: A Review of Overlooked Toxins

1
IFREMER, Centre de Brest, DYNECO Pelagos, 29280 Plouzané, France
2
Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
3
University Brest, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, 29280 Plouzané, France
4
Station de Recherches Sous-Marines et Océanographiques (STARESO), Punta Revellata, BP33, 20260 Calvi, France
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Toxins 2021, 13(12), 905; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13120905
Submission received: 8 November 2021 / Revised: 8 December 2021 / Accepted: 14 December 2021 / Published: 16 December 2021
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactivity and Chemical Ecological Interactions of Marine Toxins)

Abstract

Various species of Alexandrium can produce a number of bioactive compounds, e.g., paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), spirolides, gymnodimines, goniodomins, and also uncharacterised bioactive extracellular compounds (BECs). The latter metabolites are released into the environment and affect a large range of organisms (from protists to fishes and mammalian cell lines). These compounds mediate allelochemical interactions, have anti-grazing and anti-parasitic activities, and have a potentially strong structuring role for the dynamic of Alexandrium blooms. In many studies evaluating the effects of Alexandrium on marine organisms, only the classical toxins were reported and the involvement of BECs was not considered. A lack of information on the presence/absence of BECs in experimental strains is likely the cause of contrasting results in the literature that render impossible a distinction between PSTs and BECs effects. We review the knowledge on Alexandrium BEC, (i.e., producing species, target cells, physiological effects, detection methods and molecular candidates). Overall, we highlight the need to identify the nature of Alexandrium BECs and urge further research on the chemical interactions according to their ecological importance in the planktonic chemical warfare and due to their potential collateral damage to a wide range of organisms.
Keywords: dinoflagellate; paralytic shellfish toxin; lytic; allelopathy; bioactivity; chemical ecology; secondary metabolite dinoflagellate; paralytic shellfish toxin; lytic; allelopathy; bioactivity; chemical ecology; secondary metabolite

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Long, M.; Krock, B.; Castrec, J.; Tillmann, U. Unknown Extracellular and Bioactive Metabolites of the Genus Alexandrium: A Review of Overlooked Toxins. Toxins 2021, 13, 905. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13120905

AMA Style

Long M, Krock B, Castrec J, Tillmann U. Unknown Extracellular and Bioactive Metabolites of the Genus Alexandrium: A Review of Overlooked Toxins. Toxins. 2021; 13(12):905. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13120905

Chicago/Turabian Style

Long, Marc, Bernd Krock, Justine Castrec, and Urban Tillmann. 2021. "Unknown Extracellular and Bioactive Metabolites of the Genus Alexandrium: A Review of Overlooked Toxins" Toxins 13, no. 12: 905. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13120905

APA Style

Long, M., Krock, B., Castrec, J., & Tillmann, U. (2021). Unknown Extracellular and Bioactive Metabolites of the Genus Alexandrium: A Review of Overlooked Toxins. Toxins, 13(12), 905. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13120905

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop