Cardiovascular and Neurological Diseases and Association with Helicobacter Pylori Infection—An Overview
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Cardiovascular Diseases (CVDs)
3.1. Introduction to CVDs Associated with H. Pylori
3.1.1. Epidemiological Context
3.1.2. Risk Factors and Pathogenic Mechanisms
3.1.3. Pathogenic Mechanisms of H. pylori Infection
3.1.4. Longitudinal Studies and Temporal Evolution of CVDs
3.2. Atherosclerosis and H. pylori: Pathophysiological Mechanisms
3.2.1. Formation of Atherosclerotic Plaques
3.2.2. Endothelial Dysfunction and Chronic Inflammation
3.2.3. Chronic Inflammation and the Role of Pathogen Recognition Receptors [PRRs]
3.2.4. Inflammatory Markers and Molecular Mimicry
3.3. Myocardial Infarction and H. pylori
3.3.1. Pathophysiological Mechanisms and Inflammation
3.3.2. Contradictions in the Literature
3.3.3. Impact of H. pylori Eradication on the Risk of Myocardial Infarction and Mortality
3.3.4. Longitudinal Studies and the Long-Term Relationship between H. pylori and Myocardial Infarction
3.4. Stroke and H. pylori
3.4.1. Pathophysiological Mechanisms
3.4.2. Impact of H. pylori Infection on Platelets and Inflammatory Mediators
3.4.3. Meta-Analyses and Cohort Studies on the Association between H. pylori and Stroke Risk
3.5. Endothelial Dysfunction and H. pylori
3.5.1. Inflammatory and Immune Mechanisms
3.5.2. Direct Interaction between H. pylori and Endothelial Cells
3.5.3. Role of Inflammatory Cytokines in H. pylori-Induced Endothelial Dysfunction
3.5.4. Mechanisms of PRR Activation by H. pylori
3.5.5. Oxidative Stress and Endothelial Dysfunction in the context of H. pylori Infection
3.5.6. Involvement of Endothelial Adhesion Molecules in H. pylori-Induced Vascular Inflammation
3.6. Controversial Findings Regarding the Causal Link between H. pylori and CVDs
3.6.1. Discrepancies in the Results from Epidemiological Studies
3.6.2. Confounding Factors in Research on H. pylori and CVDs
3.6.3. Impact of H. pylori Eradication on CVDs
3.6.4. Investigating Potential Targeted Therapies for H. pylori in the Context of CVDs
4. Neurological Diseases
4.1. Neurological Diseases and H. pylori Infection
4.2. Prevalence of H. pylori Infection in Neurological Disease Populations
4.3. The Link between H. pylori and Various Neurological Conditions
4.4. Risk Factors Associated with H. pylori Infection and Neurological Diseases
4.5. Socioeconomic and Geographic Impact on the Prevalence of H. pylori in Neurological Diseases
4.6. Proposed Pathogenic Mechanisms Linking H. pylori and Neurological Diseases
4.7. Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses on H. pylori and Neurological Diseases
4.8. Alzheimer’s Disease and H. pylori
4.8.1. Pathophysiological Mechanisms and Inflammation
4.8.2. ApoE Polymorphisms and the Immune Response
4.8.3. Relevant Studies and Contradictory Theories
4.9. Multiple Sclerosis (MS) and H. pylori
4.9.1. Pathophysiological Mechanisms
4.9.2. H. pylori-Induced Immunomodulation in the Context of Multiple Sclerosis
4.9.3. SS1 Antigen and Animal Models of MS
4.9.4. Negative Correlation between H. pylori and MS
4.9.5. Epidemiological and Cohort Studies on H. pylori and Multiple Sclerosis
4.9.6. The Role of H. pylori in the Etiology of MS
4.9.7. Impact of H. pylori Eradication on Patients with MS
4.10. Parkinson’s Disease and H. pylori
4.10.1. Pathophysiological Mechanisms
4.10.2. Relevant Studies
4.11. Guillain–Barré Syndrome (GBS) and H. pylori
4.11.1. The Pathophysiological Mechanisms of GBS and the Role of H. pylori
4.11.2. Relevant Studies on H. pylori Infection and GBS
4.11.3. Clinical and Demographic Considerations
4.12. Discussions on Controversies and Future Research Proposals Regarding Neurological Diseases and H. pylori
4.12.1. Stroke and H. pylori
4.12.2. Alzheimer’s Disease and H. pylori
4.12.3. MS and H. pylori
4.12.4. Parkinson’s Disease and H. pylori
4.12.5. GBS and H. pylori
5. Discussion
5.1. Cardiovascular Diseases
5.2. Neurological Disorders
5.3. Clinical Relevance
5.3.1. Therapies for Cardiovascular Diseases
5.3.2. Therapies for Neurological Diseases
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Pădureanu, V.; Dop, D.; Caragea, D.C.; Rădulescu, D.; Pădureanu, R.; Forțofoiu, M.-C. Cardiovascular and Neurological Diseases and Association with Helicobacter Pylori Infection—An Overview. Diagnostics 2024, 14, 1781. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics14161781
Pădureanu V, Dop D, Caragea DC, Rădulescu D, Pădureanu R, Forțofoiu M-C. Cardiovascular and Neurological Diseases and Association with Helicobacter Pylori Infection—An Overview. Diagnostics. 2024; 14(16):1781. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics14161781
Chicago/Turabian StylePădureanu, Vlad, Dalia Dop, Daniel Cosmin Caragea, Dumitru Rădulescu, Rodica Pădureanu, and Mircea-Cătălin Forțofoiu. 2024. "Cardiovascular and Neurological Diseases and Association with Helicobacter Pylori Infection—An Overview" Diagnostics 14, no. 16: 1781. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics14161781