Investigation of the Innovative Combined Reuse of Phosphate Mine Waste Rock and Phosphate Washing Sludge to Produce Eco-Friendly Bricks
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. General Methodology
2.2. Raw Material Sampling and Preparation
2.3. Raw Materials Characterization
2.3.1. Environmental Behavior and Health Condition of Raw Materials
2.3.2. Physical and Geotechnical Characterization
2.3.3. Chemical and Mineralogical Characterization
2.4. Mixtures Definition and Characterization
2.5. Laboratory Tests on Pilot Scale Bricks
2.5.1. Pilot Scale Bricks Manufacturing
2.5.2. Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCA)
2.5.3. Water Absorption (WA)
2.5.4. Thermal Conductivity (TC)
2.5.5. Microstructural Analysis (SEM)
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Raw Materials Characterization
3.1.1. Environmental Behavior and Health Condition of Raw Materials
3.1.2. Physical and Geotechnical Characterization
3.1.3. Chemical and Mineralogical Characterization
3.2. Mixtures Characterization
3.3. Laboratory Tests on Pilot Scale Bricks
3.3.1. Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCA)
- Reference 5: Comprising 60% PWS and 40% PWR, these bricks displayed variable compressive strengths, ranging from 3 to 4.7 MPa after 14 days and 3.5 to 5.3 MPa after 28 days. This variability suggests inconsistencies in the material’s behavior.
- Reference 8: With a mix of 45% PWS, 50% PWR, and 5% conventional cement, these bricks showed more consistent and higher compressive strengths. After 14 days, strengths ranged from 4.4 to 5.6 MPa, and after 28 days, from 5.8 to 7.1 MPa. The addition of cement significantly improved the compressive strength and its development over time.
- Reference 17: Containing 97.5% PWS and 2.5% conventional cement, these bricks exhibited the lowest compressive strengths, between 3.4 and 3.7 MPa after 14 days and 4.2 to 5.3 MPa after 28 days. The high sludge content likely contributed to the reduced strength.
- Despite these variations, all formulations exceed the requirements of the standard [56] for dry uniaxial compressive strength. This indicates that each mixture, regardless of the differences in composition and resulting strength, is suitable for practical applications. The compliance with the standard requirements suggests that these bricks can be effectively used in construction, ensuring safety and durability. This finding is crucial for the utilization of alternative materials like PWS and PWR, promoting sustainable practices in the construction industry.
3.3.2. Water Absorption (WA)
3.3.3. Thermal Conductivity (TC) Properties
3.3.4. Microstructural Analysis
4. Conclusions
- The PWS and PWR leaching characteristic test (TCLP) conducted in this study demonstrate no existence of contaminant. Despite being made with phosphate waste, compressed earth bricks (CEBs) do not pose any threats to the environment or human health;
- Following a preliminary study including seventeen distinct formulations, three best formulations were developed to meet the specified requirements, namely 5 (S60-R40-C0), 8 (S45-R50-C5) and 17 (S97.5-R0-C2.5);
- The effect of scale-up, marking the transition from laboratory preliminary characterization to laboratory pilot-scale on real products, was also studied;
- All laboratory pilot-scale formulations achieved dry compressive strength values exceeding 2 MPa after 28 days;
- Related to water absorption, they exhibited very low to low capillary absorption and are within the requirements indicated by international standards;
- The thermal conductivity of the scaled up best three mixtures was about 0.6 W m−1 K−1 at laboratory scale;
- The SEM analyses of the elaborated bricks confirmed the formation of Calcium Silicate Hydrates (C-S-H) and Portlandite, which allowed to improve the mechanical properties of the elaborated CEBs.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Reference | Mixture | PWS (Wt %) | PWR (Wt %) | CC (Wt %) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | S40-R60-C0 | 40 | 60 | 0 |
2 | S45-R55-C0 | 45 | 55 | 0 |
3 | S50-R50-C0 | 50 | 50 | 0 |
4 | S55-R45-C0 | 55 | 45 | 0 |
5 | S60-R40-C0 | 60 | 40 | 0 |
6 | S35-R60-C5 | 35 | 60 | 5 |
7 | S40-R55-C5 | 40 | 55 | 5 |
8 | S45-R50-C5 | 45 | 50 | 5 |
9 | S30-R60-C10 | 30 | 60 | 10 |
10 | S35-R55-C10 | 35 | 55 | 10 |
11 | S40-R50-C10 | 40 | 50 | 10 |
12 | S45-R45-C10 | 45 | 45 | 10 |
13 | S50-R40-C10 | 50 | 40 | 10 |
14 | S90-R0-C10 | 90 | 0 | 10 |
15 | S92.5-R0-C7.5 | 92.5 | 0 | 7.5 |
16 | S95-R0-C5 | 95 | 0 | 5 |
17 | S97.5-R0-C2.5 | 97.5 | 0 | 2.5 |
Sample | Trace Elements (mg/L) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
As | Ba | Cd | Cr | Pb | Ag | Zn | |
PWR | <0.1 | 0.55 | 0.15 | <0.1 | <0.1 | <0.1 | 0.25 |
PWS | <0.1 | 0.43 | 0.1 | <0.1 | <0.1 | <0.1 | 0.21 |
US EPA Standards | 5 | 100 | 1 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 2 |
Properties Value | Unit | PWR | PWS |
---|---|---|---|
Particle size analysis | |||
D50 | mm | 14.34 | 0.051 |
D80 | mm | 18.94 | 0.108 |
Dmax | mm | 25 | 0.5 |
Plasticity index | % | unmeasurable | 20 |
Methylene blue value | g/100 g | 0.7 | 0.22 |
Sand equivalent | % | 41 | 9 |
Proctor test | |||
Optimal dry density | kg/m3 | 1820 | 1960 |
Optimal moisture content | % | 13 | 7.3 |
Density | kg/m3 | 1610.36 | 1476.7 |
CaO | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | MgO | K2O | Na2O | TiO2 | P2O5 | MnO | LOI | CaF2 | SO3 | CO2 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PWR | 34.27 | 23.77 | 0.75 | 0.59 | 3.19 | 0.13 | 0.5 | <0.01 | 14.21 | <0.01 | 15.65 | 2.98 | 0.84 | 2.22 |
PWS | 31.73 | 22.02 | 2.21 | 0.98 | 3.41 | 0.57 | 0.7 | 0.21 | 12.95 | <0.01 | 16.15 | 4.71 | 0.81 | 2.71 |
Formulations | Water Absorption Coefficient (g/cm2·min1/2) | Obtained Category for Exterior Walls |
---|---|---|
Formulation 5 (60% PWS + 40% PWR) | 10.3 | Extremely low capillarity absorption |
Formulation 8 (45% PWS + 50% PWR + 5% CC) | 13.8 | Extremely low capillarity absorption data |
Formulation 17 (97.5% PWS + 2.5% CC) | 26.9 | Low capillarity absorption |
Formulations | Thermal Conductivity (W·m−1·K−1) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Sample 1 | Sample 2 | Sample 3 | Average | |
Formulation 5 (60% PWS + 40% PWR) | 0.627 | 0.581 | 0.604 | |
Formulation 8 (45% PWS + 50% PWR + 5% CC) | 0.577 | 0.562 | 0.597 | |
Formulation 17 (97.5% PWS + 2.5% CC) | 0.563 | 0.632 | 0.553 | 0.583 |
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Inabi, O.; Khalil, A.; Zouine, A.; Hakkou, R.; Benzaazoua, M.; Taha, Y. Investigation of the Innovative Combined Reuse of Phosphate Mine Waste Rock and Phosphate Washing Sludge to Produce Eco-Friendly Bricks. Buildings 2024, 14, 2600. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14092600
Inabi O, Khalil A, Zouine A, Hakkou R, Benzaazoua M, Taha Y. Investigation of the Innovative Combined Reuse of Phosphate Mine Waste Rock and Phosphate Washing Sludge to Produce Eco-Friendly Bricks. Buildings. 2024; 14(9):2600. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14092600
Chicago/Turabian StyleInabi, Omar, Abdessamad Khalil, Abir Zouine, Rachid Hakkou, Mostafa Benzaazoua, and Yassine Taha. 2024. "Investigation of the Innovative Combined Reuse of Phosphate Mine Waste Rock and Phosphate Washing Sludge to Produce Eco-Friendly Bricks" Buildings 14, no. 9: 2600. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14092600