Recent research has increasingly focused on the relationship between work-related stress, resilience, and health behaviors, particularly in high-risk occupations like construction. Scholars have identified resilience—both psychological and physiological—as being crucial for maintaining well-being in demanding work environments. Simultaneously, leisure sports participation is recognized as essential for mitigating the effects of occupational stress.
Within this context, the link between work resilience and leisure sports participation has garnered significant attention. The sections that follow will explore these relationships, beginning with an analysis of work resilience’s impact on leisure sports participation and examining the roles of physiological resilience, psychological resilience, social support, and occupational engagement, culminating in our proposed hypotheses.
2.1. Work Resilience and Leisure Sports Participation
Leisure sports activities are voluntarily chosen during free time to improve physical fitness, mental health, and social interaction. These activities range from competitive sports to non-competitive ones like walking and gardening [
9]. Leisure sports participation, in this context, is seen as a way to enhance individual and societal quality of life through physical and mental engagement. Research on leisure sports participation focuses on physical health, mental health, and social interaction. Studies show that regular participation improves cardiovascular health, muscle strength, and anaerobic capacity. For example, Krustrup et al. found significant cardiovascular and body composition improvements in untrained males participating in recreational soccer [
10]. Hoffman’s study indicated that regular recreational sports participation enhanced muscle strength and anaerobic capacity in children [
11]. In terms of mental health, recreational physical activity has a significant positive impact on mental health. Participation in recreational sports has been found to significantly improve mental health, helping participants to reduce stress, alleviate anxiety, and improve overall psychological resilience [
12]. A systematic review by Eime et al. demonstrated that sports participation, particularly in team sports, is strongly associated with improved mental health outcomes such as elevated self-esteem, reduced depressive symptoms, and enhanced social interaction [
13]. In terms of social interaction, recreational physical activity also significantly enhances social interaction skills. Lower’s study found that students who participated in sports clubs excelled in social interaction and leadership skills [
14]. In addition, Barbieri’s study noted that participation in social and sports organizations contributes to self-rated physical and mental health, and this benefit was particularly evident among males [
15]. And the factors affecting leisure sports participation include personal schedules, knowledge of the activities, work and school stress [
16], and urban–rural differences in residential settings [
17].
Resilience, a concept rooted in psychology, refers to the capacity of individuals to adapt successfully in the face of adversity, stress, or threats. Its development is understood as a dynamic process involving complex interactions between the individual and their environment. Jackson et al. conceptualize resilience as the ability to positively adjust when confronted with challenges, emphasizing the importance of strategies such as cultivating positive professional relationships, sustaining motivation, developing emotional insight, achieving life balance, nurturing spirituality, and enhancing reflective skills. These strategies collectively contribute to strengthening an individual’s resilience, enabling them to navigate difficulties with greater efficacy [
18]. Work resilience, on the other hand, refers to an individual’s ability to positively adapt and return to normal working conditions when faced with stress, challenges, and adversity at work. This ability not only helps individuals to maintain mental health in adversity, but also enhances job performance and career satisfaction. Work resilience is affected by a variety of factors, including personal traits, work environment, and occupational characteristics. Personal traits such as neuroticism, positive thinking, self-efficacy, and coping styles have a significant impact on resilience and influence the level of resilience by affecting the psychological adjustment process [
19]. Badu believes that support systems and leadership styles in the work environment also play an important role; for example, organizational resources such as formal and informal support services, leadership, and role modeling can enhance employees’ resilience [
20]. Moreover, the characteristics of specific occupations can significantly influence resilience. For instance, Delgado et al. found that mental health workers, who are frequently exposed to emotional labor, must possess a high level of resilience to manage the demands of their roles effectively. The study also highlights the critical role of clinical supervision in bolstering resilience among these workers [
21]. This shows that work resilience is an important competency needed by individuals when facing work stress and challenges.
Work resilience is particularly important for construction workers who face the challenges of high-intensity work and harsh environments. Chen et al.’s study showed that personal resilience has a direct negative impact on psychological stress in construction work [
22]. Concurrently, the literature has extensively documented the positive effects of recreational physical activity on psychological well-being, highlighting its role in reducing stress, alleviating anxiety, and improving overall mental and physical health. Moreover, such activities foster social interaction and teamwork, which are vital for the holistic well-being of workers in high-stress occupations like construction. However, there is a notable gap in the literature regarding the specific impact of leisure sports participation on the enhancement of work resilience among construction workers. While the general benefits of physical activity are well-recognized, the direct relationship between leisure sports and resilience in this occupational group has not been thoroughly explored. Addressing this gap, this study hypothesizes that participation in leisure sports can serve as a crucial mechanism for construction workers to relieve work-related stress, build social connections, and subsequently enhance their resilience, enabling them to better manage work-related challenges and maintain sustained engagement in both work and recreational activities. Based on this, the following hypotheses are proposed in this paper:
H1: Construction workers’ work resilience positively influences their leisure sports participation.
Physiological resilience refers to an individual’s ability to maintain or quickly restore a normal physiological state in the face of stress and adversity. Physiological resilience is critical to the physical and mental health of construction workers due to the high-risk and high-intensity nature of their work environment. Klinedinst and Hackney found that physiological resilience plays an important role in coping with aging, stress, and inflammation. Studies have shown that physiological resilience can be enhanced by regular physical exercise, low-calorie and high-nutrient diets, and prebiotic and probiotic supplementation. These interventions help to maintain or restore physiological homeostasis in the body [
23]. It is evident that physiological resilience plays a vital role in coping with stress and maintaining health. Through exercise, nutritional interventions, and stress management, individual physiological resilience can be effectively enhanced to improve overall health and quality of life. Lu, C.’s study demonstrates that personal resilience among construction workers has a direct mitigating effect on psychological stress. The findings indicate that workers with higher resilience levels are better equipped to manage and alleviate stress, even in high-pressure environments, thereby preserving their physical and mental health. This stress-reducing capacity also facilitates active participation in leisure and sports activities, which, in turn, further enhances their physiological resilience [
24]. Construction workers typically develop strong physiological resilience due to the demands of their high-intensity work, enabling them to engage in low-intensity sports during their leisure time. Participation in these activities not only improves psychological health and subjective well-being but also enhances the ability to cope with work-related stress. Based on these insights, the following hypotheses are proposed in this study:
H1a: Construction workers’ physiological resilience positively influences their leisure sports participation.
Psychological resilience is viewed as a multidimensional psychological construct that consists of an individual’s stable traits (e.g., personality, ability to regulate emotions) and modifiable intrinsic factors (e.g., coping strategies). This multidimensionality allows psychological resilience to show different adaptive and resilient abilities in the face of different types of stressors [
19]. In his study, Foster showed that psychological resilience is closely related to an individual’s mental health. Individuals with high resilience are better able to maintain their mental health and reduce the risk of psychological disorders such as depression and anxiety when facing stress and challenges [
25]. Construction workers often need to face heavy work, which causes them to have different levels of psychological resilience to normal people and better equips them to face life. In turn, appropriate participation in recreational sports activities after work can help to relieve psychological stress, especially for construction workers, who are a high-intensity work type. Participation in leisure sports activities helps to enhance the psychological well-being of individuals, including reduction in psychological distress and stress. Studies have shown that psychological resilience plays a moderating role in this process, i.e., the positive emotions generated through leisure activities can enhance the psychological resources of individuals for coping with stress, thus reducing psychological problems [
26]. In summary, psychological resilience is defined as an individual’s capacity to adapt effectively and regain equilibrium in the face of stress, adversity, and challenges. Recent studies have highlighted the critical role of psychological resilience in maintaining psychological well-being, particularly for construction workers who operate in high-intensity and high-risk environments. This resilience not only aids in preserving mental health but also encourages active participation in recreational physical activities, which in turn enhances both physical and mental well-being. Despite these insights, there remains a gap in the literature regarding the specific mechanisms through which psychological resilience influences health outcomes in this demographic. Building on this understanding and addressing these gaps, the following hypotheses are proposed in this study:
H1b: Construction workers’ psychological resilience positively influences their leisure sports participation.
Social support originates from psychological research, and its concept was first proposed by foreign scholar Cobb, who proposed the concept of social support in the process of psychiatry research and believed that social support is the care and support that people feel from others [
27]. Later, Wills further developed the definition of social support as the perception or experience of being loved, cared for, and valued, as well as the feelings of mutual aid and support from one’s social relationship network [
28]. As an indispensable part of social development and urban construction, construction workers tend to be more in need of social support, and at the same time, their perception of social support is also more obvious. Huang and Liu demonstrated in their study that social support plays a crucial role in enhancing both mental and physical health. Specifically, construction workers who received social support were more likely to engage in recreational sports activities, which in turn helped to reduce psychological stress, improve physical fitness, and enhance work performance [
29]. Similarly, Han and Lee found that social support significantly influences individuals’ participation in sports, particularly through emotional and instrumental support. Support from family and friends can boost self-efficacy and self-esteem, thereby increasing motivation to engage in recreational physical activities [
30]. Despite these findings, there remains a gap in the literature regarding the specific pathways through which social support influences leisure sports participation among construction workers. Addressing this gap, this study hypothesizes that construction workers are more likely to participate in recreational sports activities when they perceive adequate social support. By providing both emotional and instrumental support, social support not only improves psychological health and overall well-being but also fosters greater engagement in leisure sports, which positively impacts both physical health and job performance. Based on these insights, the following hypotheses are proposed in this paper:
H1c: Construction workers’ social support positively influences their leisure sports participation.
Occupational engagement is defined as the degree to which an individual psychologically identifies with his or her job. This identification can be manifested through their psychological engagement, involvement, and attention to their work [
31]. Rabinowitz and Hall conceptualize occupational engagement as a multidimensional construct that can be assessed by the extent to which individuals psychologically identify with their work, the perceived importance of their work, and the degree of psychological resources they invest. Their research also emphasizes that occupational engagement is not solely a personal trait but is significantly influenced by the work context [
31]. In the case of construction workers, who typically engage in highly focused and goal-oriented tasks, occupational engagement tends to be particularly high. This heightened engagement may, in turn, increase their likelihood of participating in leisure and sports activities after work. Supporting this notion, Orpen’s study found that employees with higher levels of occupational engagement were more likely to engage in work-related leisure activities during non-work hours. This pattern was observed among bank employees and police officers, where those with greater occupational engagement participated more frequently in leisure activities connected to their work, suggesting that occupational engagement enhances employees’ motivation to engage in leisure sports activities [
32]. Regular participation in sports activities helps to improve employees’ psychological well-being and job satisfaction, which in turn enhances their occupational engagement. Construction workers can relieve stress and enhance their physical and mental well-being through leisure sports activities after intense work, thus performing better at work [
33]. Therefore, by improving occupational engagement, construction workers can have a better work–life balance and thus actively participate in leisure sports activities to enhance their physical and mental health and overall well-being. Based on this, the following hypotheses are proposed in this paper:
H1d: Construction workers’ occupational engagement positively influences their leisure sports participation.
2.2. Safety and Health Awareness, Work Resilience, and Leisure Sports Participation
Safety is a critical component of occupational health, defined as “the state of being free from harm, injury, or loss.” It encompasses comprehensive risk assessment, hazard prevention, control, and management, and it is a fundamental requirement across all industries. Safety risks are omnipresent, whether at home, work, or in public spaces [
34]. Recent research, including studies by Chatterjee and Roy, highlights the importance of rigorous health and safety procedures in protecting workers, particularly in industrial settings. These procedures not only mitigate risks but also enhance worker focus and productivity, demonstrating the value of safety awareness and training programs, especially in larger industries that invest more heavily in these areas [
35]. In the context of construction workers, work resilience has been shown to significantly influence safety and health awareness. Wang D. et al. found that psychological capital, including resilience, plays a pivotal role in enhancing safety behaviors by increasing workers’ awareness of safety participation [
36]. Furthermore, Meliá and Becerril’s research connects higher safety awareness to improved health behaviors, such as regular exercise and healthy eating habits, which are critical for maintaining both mental and physical well-being among construction workers [
37]. These findings suggest that safety and health awareness is not only essential for immediate workplace safety but also for long-term health outcomes.
While these studies provide a solid foundation, there is a growing recognition in the recent literature that the relationship between safety and health awareness and other occupational health factors—such as work resilience and leisure sports participation—requires further exploration. Specifically, the role of safety and health awareness as a mediating factor between work resilience and leisure sports participation remains underexplored. Existing research has laid important groundwork by identifying correlations between safety awareness and positive health behaviors, but the specific pathways through which safety awareness enhances resilience and encourages leisure sports participation, particularly in high-risk professions like construction, have yet to be fully elucidated. Based on this thorough analysis of the current literature and the identification of research gaps, the following hypotheses are proposed in this paper:
H2: Safety and health awareness mediates the relationship between work resilience and leisure sports participation among construction workers.
The Job Demands–Resources Model suggests that excessive job demands can lead to a continuous drain on psychological resources as individuals continue to learn or work, including workloads, time pressures, emotional demands, and so on. Good job resources help to achieve job goals, reduce the negative impact of job demands, and stimulate various aspects of personal growth and development. This includes social support, feedback, job autonomy, and career development opportunities. It follows that individuals with greater physiological resilience are likely to have a higher sense of safety at work or study. And in this study, physiological resilience can improve the overall health of construction workers, which can enhance their safety and health awareness and make them pay more attention to safety and health issues in the work environment, which then lets them take effective measures to protect themselves and others. Meanwhile, Saleem et al. also found in their study that psychological capital and work engagement have a positive impact on safety behavior of construction workers [
38]. To summarize, safety and health awareness can be enhanced by improving physiological resilience so that workers can maintain good physical and mental health in high-risk work environments and thus participate more actively in leisure and sports activities. Based on this, the following hypotheses are proposed in this paper:
H2a: Safety and health awareness mediates the relationship between physiological resilience and leisure sports participation among construction workers.
With the development of the construction industry, the mental health and safety behaviors of construction workers have received increasing attention. When construction workers face high-risk and high-stress work environments, researchers generally agree that psychological capital plays an important role in improving safety behaviors and mental health. Changquan et al. found in their study that psychological capital had a significant positive effect on safety behaviors of construction workers; self-efficacy and resilience were especially positively related to safety engagement behaviors [
39]. This result is consistent with the findings of Wang, who investigated the effects of safety-related stress and psychological capital on safety behavior and found that safety-related stress weakened safety behavior, while psychological capital could mitigate this negative effect [
36].
Psychological resilience plays a crucial role not only in enhancing safety behavior and mental health but also in helping individuals manage work-related stress more effectively, thereby improving their safety and health awareness and overall behavioral performance. Nwaogu et al. found a significant negative correlation between individual resilience and psychological stress among construction workers, indicating that higher levels of psychological resilience can substantially reduce psychological stress. This reduction in stress, in turn, enhances workers’ safety and health awareness [
40]. In high-pressure environments, psychological resilience not only boosts health awareness but also encourages more active participation in leisure and sports activities, which are essential for stress relief and relaxation.
Further supporting this, studies have shown that increased safety and health awareness contributes to the overall well-being of workers. For instance, Fransen observed that psychological safety awareness mediates the effects of identity leadership on team performance and athletes’ well-being, demonstrating that psychological resilience fosters effective teamwork, strengthens team resilience, and reduces burnout by reinforcing team identity [
41]. Similarly, Ran et al.’s research identified a significant negative association between psychological resilience and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and somatization, suggesting that workers with higher psychological resilience and safety and health awareness are more inclined to participate in leisure activities that promote both mental and physical health [
42]. These findings provide further evidence of the positive impact of psychological resilience on workers’ participation in sports activities, ultimately enhancing their overall well-being. Based on this comprehensive analysis, the following hypotheses are proposed in this paper:
H2b: Safety and health awareness mediates the relationship between psychological resilience and leisure sports participation among construction workers.
Construction workers frequently encounter high levels of job stress and significant health risks. To mitigate these challenges, social support and leisure sports participation have emerged as two crucial coping strategies. Social support, encompassing assistance from family, coworkers, and the broader community, plays a vital role in alleviating job stress, enhancing job satisfaction, and improving mental health. Similarly, leisure sports participation offers significant benefits by enhancing physical health and psychological well-being through physical exercise and mental relaxation.
Safety and health awareness, which refers to an individual’s knowledge and attentiveness to their own health and workplace safety, is another critical factor. It not only influences construction workers’ ability to anticipate and manage work-related risks but also affects their willingness to engage in leisure sports participation and their actual involvement in such activities. For instance, in their study on work stress and safety behaviors among construction workers, Goldenhar et al. found that factors such as work stress, job control, social support, and the overall safety climate were significantly linked to the occurrence of work injuries and near-miss accidents. This highlights the crucial role of social support in alleviating work-related stress and enhancing safety awareness [
43]. Additionally, Gillen et al. examined injured construction workers’ perceptions of workplace safety climate, psychological job demands, and coworker support, finding that a stronger safety climate and greater coworker support were associated with lower levels of injury [
44]. These findings underscore the importance of integrating social support and safety and health awareness as part of comprehensive strategies to improve both the physical and mental well-being of construction workers, while also reducing job-related risks.
The Job Demands–Resources model emphasizes that job demands and resources together influence employees’ stress and performance. Social support and leisure sports participation are critical job resources that can mitigate stress from high job demands and promote employees’ physical and mental health. Safety and health awareness is a key psychological mechanism that helps individuals manage job demands and utilize job resources effectively. Higher safety and health awareness improves sensitivity to health and safety issues, leading to better use of social support and increased participation in leisure and physical activities to cope with work stress and enhance overall health [
45]. Therefore, increased social support is likely to boost leisure sports participation among construction workers by enhancing their safety and health awareness. Based on this premise, the following hypotheses are proposed:
H2c: Safety and health awareness mediates the relationship between social support and leisure sports participation among construction workers.
Occupational engagement and leisure sports participation are critical indicators of the physical and mental health of construction workers. Occupational engagement refers to the time, energy, and emotional commitment that employees invest in their work. While high levels of occupational engagement reflect workers’ enthusiasm and dedication, they can also lead to increased work stress and associated health risks [
46]. Safety and health awareness, which involves being conscious of one’s health and safety in the workplace, plays a crucial role in bridging the gap between occupational engagement and leisure sports participation. Enhanced safety and health awareness enables workers to better recognize work-related stresses and health risks, thereby encouraging active participation in leisure sports as a means to mitigate these stresses and improve overall well-being. For example, Nwaogu et al. found that psychological capital and work engagement positively impact safety behavior, underscoring the importance of psychological factors in workplace safety [
47]. Additionally, Ni et al. explored the relationship between job satisfaction and safety behavior, identifying occupational engagement as a significant mediator in this process [
48].
The Job Demands–Resources (JD-R) model provides a useful framework for understanding how job demands and resources jointly influence employee stress and performance (
Figure 1). Occupational engagement, when viewed as a significant job demand, has the potential to elevate psychological stress and physical strain. In contrast, leisure sports participation functions as a vital job resource, alleviating work stress and promoting physical and mental health. Safety and health awareness serves as a key psychological mechanism for managing these job demands and resources. Higher safety and health awareness increases sensitivity to health and safety issues, leading to more effective management of occupational engagement and fostering active participation in leisure activities, which in turn helps to cope with work stress and enhances overall health.
Therefore, it is posited that higher occupational engagement can enhance leisure sports participation among construction workers by improving their safety and health awareness. This, in turn, supports greater participation in leisure activities, contributing to better health outcomes. Based on this rationale, the following hypotheses are proposed in this paper:
H2d: Safety and health awareness mediates the relationship between occupational engagement and leisure sports participation among construction workers.