From Barriers to Breakthroughs: A Deep Dive into BIM Integration Challenges

Abstract

Building Information Modeling (BIM) has significantly impacted the global construction industry, promising efficiency, cost savings, and improved project outcomes. However, its adoption in developing countries, such as Nigeria, remains inconsistent due to multiple barriers. This study aims to investigate the barriers hindering the adoption of BIM in Nigeria’s construction sector, with a view to providing strategic recommendations for stakeholders. A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining a comprehensive literature review with semi-structured interviews from 10 experts in Nigeria, representing both industry and academia. A hybrid analytical methodology, integrating the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) and fuzzy Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to the Ideal Solution (TOPSIS), was used to analyze the data, because they provide a comprehensive framework for informed decision-making. Technical barriers are identified as the most significant challenge to BIM adoption, particularly due to difficulties in accessing advanced technology. Educational barriers also play a major role, with limited awareness among industry professionals hindering widespread implementation. Economic constraints further contribute to the slow adoption, as financial limitations impact investment in necessary tools and training. The study provides policy implications and recommendations, including the development of a national BIM evaluation framework, improved training programs, and government support for standardization. These recommendations are expected to facilitate informed decision-making among stakeholders and promote effective BIM adoption in Nigeria’s construction industry, serving as a roadmap for other developing countries facing similar challenges.

1. Introduction

The construction industry is a fundamental component of a nation’s economic framework across all regions and societies. Based on the report of the World Economic Forum [1], about 6% of the world’s gross domestic product is contributed by the construction industry, a figure that is expected to rise to 14.7% by 2030 [2]. The construction industry is integral to Europe’s economic strategy, as it employs 18 million people and encompasses a wide range of stakeholders and businesses [3]. According to the data from the World Economic Forum, it is evident that a 1% increase in global productivity could result in $100 billion in annual construction cost savings [4]. Such potential savings could considerably enhance a nation’s competitive advantage and its aspirations for sustainable growth [5]. Historically, the construction industry has struggled with low productivity due to its complex operations and diverse activities [6]. Building construction, heavy civil engineering, and contractors specializing in plumbing, carpentry, and electrical work are the broad categories for the sector [7]. Consequently, there has been a recent transition towards digitalization and the incorporation of modern digital trends to increase productivity. Construction 4.0, the digital transformation of the construction industry, is being driven by the powerful integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Building Information Modeling (BIM). These technologies are revolutionizing modern construction by enhancing efficiency, sustainability, and cost optimization. AI’s predictive capabilities in forecasting construction materials and BIM’s intelligent modeling create a synergy that transforms how projects are designed, managed, and executed. Several studies have shown the integration of AI in buildings. The work of Abarkan et al. [8] develops machine learning models to optimize stainless steel stub column design, improving accuracy over traditional methods. A parametric study was conducted, and four models—SVMR, ANN, DTR, and GEP—were trained and tested. Comparisons with finite element analysis and Eurocode 3 showed that machine learning outperformed conventional methods, with SVMR delivering the highest accuracy. A user-friendly tool was created for practical design applications. This integration not only streamlines material procurement and waste reduction but also enables real-time decision-making, adaptive project adjustments, and sustainable building practices, shaping the future of smart and resilient construction. A similar study by Rabi et al. [9] explores the bond behavior of stainless-steel-reinforced concrete (RC) using ANNs. The ANN model’s predictions were compared with experimental data and international design standards, revealing that Eurocode 2 and Model Code 2010 are overly conservative. A new ANN-based bond design formula is proposed, offering a more efficient and sustainable method for specifying bond strength while minimizing material waste.

However, the adoption of a completely connected industry remains slow in the construction industry, particularly when compared to industries such as manufacturing. BIM emerges as a beacon, providing answers to the numerous challenges inherent to the construction industry.

Building Information Modeling (BIM) is a paradigm shift from conventional construction practices, symbolizing a beacon in the modern construction landscape. BIM offers a thorough depiction of the structural and operational characteristics of any building or infrastructure through its digital lens [10]. This comprehensive approach not only accelerates the planning, design, and building phases, but it also improves the management and operation of these structures after they are built [11]. The benefits of Building Information Modeling (BIM) are increasingly being acknowledged and utilized on a global scale [12]. Merging all relevant data into a single model eliminates the need for fragmented drawings and blueprints. This model can be accessed by a variety of stakeholders, including architects, contractors, and facility managers, who wish to visualize, simulate, and evaluate the performance of a structure over the course of its lifetime [13]. The outcome is one of improved collaboration, decreased errors, increased productivity, and a refined approach to facility management. However, the narrative surrounding BIM on a worldwide scale is not unified [14]. While developed countries have moved quickly to incorporate BIM into their existing construction methodologies, third-world countries are still in varied levels of adopting the technology [15]. BIM adoption is widespread in industrialized countries like the USA, UK, and Australia, and it has a significant impact on the effectiveness, accuracy, and quality of construction projects [16]. These developed economies have also incorporated additional technologies and concepts, such as BIM add-ins and BIM-supporting software, to further refine the construction workflow. Such solutions increase data management and stakeholder participation and communication throughout the project’s lifecycle.

One of the developing countries, Nigeria, makes for a case study. As Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa and a major economic player, its construction industry, which has been affected by BIM, presents a pathway to understanding the dynamics of BIM integration in the construction industry in Africa. According to Onungwa et al. [17], there is a significant lack of awareness and understanding of Building Information Modeling (BIM) technology in Nigeria. This issue is primarily caused by a combination of factors, including a general misunderstanding of the concept and a shortage of trained professionals skilled in using BIM tools, as highlighted by Abubakar et al. [18] and reaffirmed by Onugwu et al. [17]. Kori’s [19] study provides insights into the state of BIM implementation within Nigeria’s architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) industry. The study reveals that larger and medium-sized firms have been more receptive to adopting BIM compared to smaller companies. This is particularly evident in their adherence to policies and procedures, which contributes to a lower acceptance rate among smaller firms. Moreover, the current state of BIM implementation in Nigeria predominantly occurs at the organizational level and is commonly referred to as “lonely BIM”, a term explained by Hamma-adama et al. [20]. This implementation is categorized as BIM Stage 1, indicating significant room for improvement. The fragmentation of the Nigerian building market presents a major challenge. Onungwa et al. [17] note that different professionals within the industry create and manage information independently, leading to inefficiencies. According to Hamma-adama et al. [20] and Kori [19], structural and service designs still rely on 2D computer-aided design (CAD) systems, with few architects using 3D CAD systems for visualization and presentation. Ultimately, Nigeria’s building industry is entrenched in traditional practices, necessitating a substantial cultural shift to accommodate BIM adoption. Hardin and McCool [21] observed that changing the perspectives and processes of industry stakeholders is the most challenging aspect of this transition.

Despite the benefits of BIM to the construction industry, the reviewed literature reveals that several countries, particularly developing ones like Nigeria, have yet to fully implement or adopt BIM in their construction projects. This is due to various challenges faced by these countries during the implementation process [22]. In other developing countries, the high cost of BIM implementation and the complexity of its software are significant hurdles, as seen in India and Brazil [23]. However, India has made strides through government-mandated BIM policies, which have facilitated its adoption, while Brazil has effectively utilized public–private partnerships to overcome these barriers [24]. South Africa’s approach has been to integrate BIM into its regulatory frameworks, which has helped in aligning industry practices with BIM standards [25]. Despite these efforts, the lack of training and education remains a pervasive issue across these regions, highlighting the need for foundational knowledge in educational institutions to improve the employability of construction graduates [26]. This underscores the necessity for Nigeria to develop tailored strategies that incorporate international best practices while addressing its unique industry landscape. By aligning with successful strategies from other developing nations, Nigeria can potentially accelerate its BIM adoption and leverage its benefits for sustainable construction practices [27].

In Nigeria, the challenges of BIM implementation have led to the development of several strategies, including government support and frequent training of construction professionals. However, affording and successfully implementing these strategies presents another significant challenge. To overcome these obstacles and achieve effective BIM implementation in Nigeria, further studies are required to explore the relationships among the fundamental strategies of BIM implementation. Understanding these relationships is essential to streamline the strategies into a single, cohesive approach that can be feasibly adopted by project stakeholders in Nigeria.

This study was conducted to investigate the challenges of BIM implementation in Nigeria’s construction industry, identify various strategies that can mitigate these challenges, and establish the relationships among these strategies. The goal is to develop an effective, unified approach to BIM implementation that can be practically adopted within the study context. The research objective of this study addresses the following questions. (I) What are the significant BIM implementation barriers in a developing country like Nigeria? (II) How can these barriers be prioritized in such a way as to add value for both practitioners and policymakers? (III) What are the solutions to address specific barriers?

This study covers two research gaps. First, in the study by Zhou et al. [28], it was mentioned that many countries/regions have diversified experiences of BIM, which is mainly driven by the conscious behaviors of enterprises rather than using a forceful policy. Therefore, it is important to understand the viewpoints of stakeholders within the industry in a particular region, to set effective policies towards rapid BIM integration. However, few works have carried out a robust study examining the barriers and strategies of BIM in Nigeria, which this work covers. Second, this work uses two MCDM approaches in analyzing the barriers as well as possible strategies for BIM implementation, while most studies have considered one or the other. This is important because it provides a comprehensive analysis that combines multiple perspectives, leading to more effective and tailored solutions for overcoming challenges and promoting the adoption of BIM in the Nigerian construction industry.

Unlike prior studies, which focused on qualitative assessments or single-method quantitative analyses, this study combines expert perspectives with a systematic multi-criteria decision-making framework, resulting in a more thorough evaluation of BIM problems. Furthermore, the paper makes concrete policy recommendations specific to Nigeria that can be used as a model for other developing nations encountering comparable implementation challenges. However, the study does have a few limitations. The sample size of expert responders, while carefully selected for their knowledge, remains rather small, which may have an impact on the findings’ generalizability. Furthermore, the study does not include real-world implementation case studies, which could further validate the proposed strategies.

2. Review of Related Works

2.1. BIM Multi-Criteria Decision-Making

Several studies have utilized the MCDM method in assessing the roles, barriers, opportunities, and risks involved in using BIM in the construction industry. In this section, we discuss some key studies, thereby highlighting the validity of the methodology used in our work. The study by Hall et al. [29] investigated the barriers of BIM in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in the New Zealand construction industry using the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) method. Their work was set up to understand the reasons for the meagre adoption of BIM in SMEs in the region. Their analysis identified several primary impediments to the adoption of BIM. These include software platform interoperability issues, the absence of governmental mandates for BIM implementation at the project level, the substantial costs associated with procuring the requisite software and licenses, and insufficient client-driven demand for BIM integration. These impediments correspond to the technological, governmental, resource, and cultural dimensions, respectively. Further scrutiny of expert evaluations revealed significant internal consistency among individual expert assessments and substantial concordance across different experts within each AHP matrix. The study by Gong et al. [30] develops a metric system using Multiple-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) to quantify the influence of BIM on building energy management (BEM). This metric system employs key performance indicators (KPIs) to assess BIM’s impact across various aspects of BEM, including cost, interoperability, human resources, information stock quality, and satisfaction. Applying this system to a case study involving the French social housing manager, Pluralis, the study identifies significant gaps between current competencies and desired performance levels. The findings highlight the importance of cost management and interoperability in enhancing BEM performance through BIM implementation. Cost management is crucial for energy conservation, while improved interoperability facilitates better information access and communication among stakeholders. The case study results yield an agreement criterion score of 0.5307, indicating the current state of BEM at Pluralis and emphasizing the need for targeted improvements. The study underscores the potential of BIM to optimize energy management practices, provided that the challenges in execution and competence are adequately addressed. The study by Haruna et al. [31] examines the use of Building Information Modeling (BIM) for sustainable building development through the Analytical Network Process (ANP), an MCDM approach. A survey of Malaysian construction professionals revealed that design optimization, reduced material needs, and integrated project delivery are the most critical factors for sustainability. BIM enhances energy efficiency and reduces waste, promoting more sustainable construction practices and better collaboration among stakeholders. The research developed a model with three clusters and six nodes, highlighting the significant impact of these factors in achieving sustainable construction. The study by Chen and Pan [32] uses BIM integrated with a fuzzy MCDM approach to select low-carbon building (LCB) measures. Focusing on high-rise commercial buildings in Hong Kong, the research identifies five key criteria and nine alternatives related to technical, economic, and environmental performance. The developed MCDM model, based on Fuzzy-PROMETHEE and validated with a real project case, provides a systematic tool for design decision-makers to effectively select LCB measures amid uncertain information. Alnaser et al. [33] investigated how BIM influences critical risk factors related to cost overruns in construction projects. The research utilized MCDM methods to re-evaluate and rank these risk factors, exploring their interrelationships and assessing BIM’s role in mitigating cost-related risks. The findings suggest that BIM can significantly reduce certain risk factors, leading to improved project cost management. Rasti et al. [34] applied MCDM methods to identify and prioritize critical success factors. They highlighted that technology maturity is the most important factor, followed by security of contracts, support from the engineering community, stakeholder consideration, and competition in the building industry. Based on the literature, it is evident that different studies have utilized MCDM for BIM implementation to address several research questions. These studies highlight the diverse challenges encountered and underscore the necessity for tailored analytical solutions to effectively address these challenges and promote successful BIM adoption.

2.2. Barriers to BIM Implementation

The contribution of BIM to the improvement of construction processes has been highlighted and researched. Studies have shown that BIM can eliminate unbudgeted change by 40% and reduce the time for project completion by 7% [35]. Likewise, the work of Azhar [36] mentioned that BIM can reduce the time to generate cost estimates by 80%. Several benefits of BIM include the reduction in construction errors, improvement in construction quality and efficiency, and reduction of risks and wastes. Despite these advantages of BIM, several barriers have restricted its proliferation in the construction industry. The work by Zhou et al. [28] carried out extensive research on the barriers to BIM implementation in China. Their study identified six barriers to BIM implementation in China: insufficient government lead/direction, organizational issues, legal issues, high cost of application, resistance to change of thinking mode, and insufficient external motivation. Their work also included a comparative analysis of BIM experiences in different regions. It was noted that the Scandinavian countries are ahead in BIM utilization, mainly driven by the conscious behavior of enterprises. The study by Liu et al. [35] also carried out a survey to identify the barriers to BIM implementation. Their study showed differing responses on BIM barriers based on the nationalities of the respondents. Their results showed that the Australian respondents focused on incomplete national standards, the high cost of training and education, the high cost of the implementation process, and the lack of professionals as the main barriers to BIM implementation in the Australian construction industry. On the other hand, the Chinese respondents mentioned the high initial cost of software as the main barrier. The study by Oduyemi et al. [37] investigated the barriers to BIM implementation in sustainable building design. Their work used a literature survey to highlight technological and non-technological challenges to BIM implementation. Their results showed that the lack of interoperability was ranked as the greatest technological challenge. The most significant non-technological challenges to BIM were training costs and software costs, client demand, and potential legal issues. According to Alsofiani [38], the absence of universally accepted standards and guidelines for BIM implementation creates confusion and inconsistency across projects. This lack of standardization can lead to interoperability issues and hinder collaboration among stakeholders. Based on the literature, we show that different studies have considered various barriers and strategies for BIM implementation across different contexts and regions, highlighting the diverse challenges faced and the need for tailored solutions to effectively address them.

Table 1. Barriers to BIM adoption.

Number	Barrier	Reference
1	Insufficient government lead/direction	[28]
2	Organizational issues	[28]
3	Legal issues	[28]
4	High cost of application	[28]
5	Resistance to change of thinking mode	[28]
6	Insufficient external motivation	[28]
7	Lack of professionals	[29]
8	Incomplete national standards	[29]
9	High cost of the implementation process	[29]
10	Lack of interoperability	[37]
11	Training costs	[37]
12	Software costs	[37]
13	Client demand	[37]
14	Absence of universally accepted standards and guidelines	[38]

highlights some of the barriers to BIM in the literature.

2.3. Strategies for Resolving Barriers to BIM Implementation

There has been growing research on strategies to resolve the barriers to BIM implementation on a regional and global level. In the work of Migilinskas et al. [39], they highlighted that implementing BIM urgently requires the development of reliable tools for exchanging information between different software systems. They further mentioned that these tools should also enable efficient and direct coordination and monitoring among project participants and team members, who may be from different companies and use various software tools. Their work also mentioned that for successful BIM implementation, achieving a high level of interoperability and standardizing work methods are essential. The case study of Saudi Arabia was used in investigating the challenges and strategies towards BIM implementation [40]. Their study highlighted that the most efficient strategies include enabling legislation and a supportive regulatory environment, financial assistance by the government, more education for the actors involved, and benchmarking against other countries. The works by Nagalingam et al. [41] focused on the Palestinian construction industry, in regard to the challenges and strategies towards BIM implementation. Their study’s findings suggested that government should assume a proactive role in promoting the use of BIM. Their study mentioned that demonstrating the value added to construction projects, especially those procured by the government, would go a long way to break the key identified barriers. The study by Manzoor et al. [42] used the case of Malaysia to investigate the strategies for effective BIM implementation in sustainable building projects. In their study, they used a literature survey to classify strategies for BIM implementation and then distributed questionnaires to construction stakeholders. The mean score and exploratory factors were used in examining the result, which showed that workshops, lectures, and conference events are effective strategies to enhance public awareness and provide better information on the costs and benefits of BIM implementations. The penetration of BIM in the Egyptian construction industry was studied by Marzouk et al. [43]. Their work showed that the role of government in incentivizing BIM implementation remains ineffective, while efforts are being influenced by small and medium businesses. Their study also mentioned that large organizations and educational institutions appear to be the key to influencing the adoption of BIM within the Egyptian industry.

3. Methodology

In answering our study’s research questions as laid out in the introduction, we explore a hybrid methodology, which involves three levels. The first stage is the identification and classification of barriers and possible strategies through a thorough literature review. These barriers and strategies are further refined based on discussion with an experts’ panel using the modified Delphi method. After this, the weights of the BIM barriers are calculated to rank them using the AHP method (further explanation in subsequent section). Thirdly, the strategies are prioritized in terms of overcoming specific barriers using the TOPSIS approach. The research framework is presented in Figure 1.

AHP was employed to establish a hierarchical structure for the identified BIM adoption barriers, allowing for the assignment of relative weights based on expert input. AHP theory measurement is achieved through a pairwise comparison which relies on the opinions of professionals or experts to attain priority scales [44]. This method is particularly advantageous in prioritizing factors in a structured and consistent manner. However, as expert evaluations often involve subjectivity and uncertainty, Fuzzy-TOPSIS was integrated to enhance the decision-making process by incorporating fuzzy logic, which helps address ambiguity in expert judgments. Compared to alternative methods such as the Simple Additive Weighting (SAW) method or ANP, AHP offers a more structured weighting system, while Fuzzy-TOPSIS effectively ranks alternatives based on their relative closeness to an ideal solution.

As a first approach, a detailed literature review to identify the BIM barriers is conducted. In this context, a range of scholarly databases is consulted, including Web of Science, Google Scholar, Scopus, and ScienceDirect. The search terms we have used include ‘BIM application’, ‘barriers in BIM’, ‘BIM strategies’, and other pertinent terms found in the abstracts of research in BIM. From the comprehensive review of barriers and strategies for BIM implementation in previous studies, 14 barriers were compiled and categorized into four groups. Table 1 shows the summary of the identified barriers to BIM implementation.

3.1. The Modified Delphi Method

In categorizing the BIM barriers, the modified Delphi method is utilized. In this method, the inputs from the experts are systematically retrieved using discussions and questionnaires [45]. Five fundamental steps are followed in this process, which include: a first and second round of questionnaire survey, a compilation of the feedback, and then repetition of the process until an agreement amongst the experts is achieved [46]. There have been varying opinions regarding the number of experts to be included in this method. In the study by Yildiz et al. [47], they suggested a minimum of ten experts. Results from sixteen experts were culled in the work of Shah et al. [48]. In the work by Saka et al. [49], five BIM experts were used in revising the questionnaire designed for assessing BIM implementation. In this study, the questionnaire was sent to the BIM professionals in Nigeria. The questionnaire included several packages: the objective of the interview, the background information, and an extensive explanation of the research. The first section of the questionnaire includes information on the demographics of the respondents. The set of questions requires the participants to comment on the barriers to BIM. The full set of questions is in the Supplementary Document.

The rationale behind the choice of target respondents was based on certain criteria, including years of experience in the construction industry, years of experience with BIM technology, and the extent of sound knowledge and understanding of BIM implementation strategies. The criteria for choosing the respondents included a minimum of 10 years of professional experience, a minimum of a bachelor’s degree, and above 5 years of experience with BIM implementation. Furthermore, the authors have chosen the approach of using experts’ opinions for this study for the following reasons:

• Depth of Insight: Experts provide in-depth knowledge and practical experience, offering richer qualitative data than general survey responses.
• Specialized Understanding: Experts comprehensively grasp industry-specific challenges, ensuring that responses are well-informed and directly relevant.
• Focused Data Collection: Interviews allow for detailed probing of specific barriers to BIM adoption, which may not be possible in structured questionnaires.
• Strategic Decision-Making Input: Since BIM implementation is often led by senior management, their perspectives are critical for policy and strategy development.

Table S1 shows the details of the respondents used in this study. The respondents consisted of professionals who work at the highest level of construction and BIM technologies. At several stages of their professional careers, they were involved in huge construction projects that utilized BIM technology. Based on the background of the experts, this study concluded that they had sufficient BIM experience and were credible enough for this research. The experts were asked to provide their input regarding the importance of barriers, with response options ranging from ‘equal importance’ to ‘extreme importance’. The data of the study were collected between July 2023 and November 2023. The data collection includes three stages. Ten experts were contacted in the first stage. Their information was collected through their LinkedIn profiles, and their levels of professionalism were ascertained through this means. They were approached through emails, seeking their consent regarding the research. The package of the research was then sent to them through email. Six experts consented to giving their input on the critical barriers to BIM implementation in Nigeria and plausible strategies to overcome these challenges. In the second stage, a period of one month was given to the experts to provide their responses to the questionnaire. The experts’ recruitment criteria showed that the experts belonged to different backgrounds in academia and industries. This sample spectrum is therefore considered sufficiently rich, and the conclusions derived are deemed representative of specialists with diverse characteristics.

3.2. Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP)

The AHP technique was developed by Saaty in the 1970s [50]. The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) simplifies complex decision-making by breaking down a problem into a hierarchy of smaller, more manageable parts. This approach allows each part to be evaluated separately. Decision-makers use numerical values to compare criteria and alternatives against the overall goal. AHP uses pairwise comparisons to establish the relative importance of different criteria. A decision hierarchy tree is constructed to organize these comparisons, outlining the relationships and the number of comparisons needed. Criteria weights are assigned by comparing one criterion to another to see how important each is relative to the main objective. The same process is applied to sub-criteria within each main criterion. To make these comparisons, Saaty [44] introduced a scale that helps assign scores based on importance. A score of 1 means that two criteria are equally important, a score of 3 means that one is somewhat more important, and a score of 9 indicates that one is much more important. Intermediate scores of 2, 4, 6, and 8 are used for finer distinctions. This scoring system helps accurately determine each criterion’s weights and sub-criteria, providing a clear framework for decision-making (

Table 2. Saaty’s basic scale of absolute numbers [44].

Numerical Representations	Definitions
1	Equally important
3	Slightly important
5	Strongly important
7	Very strongly important
9	Extremely important
2, 4, 6, and 8	Represent values in between
1/1, 1/3, 1/5, 1/7, and 1/9	Represent the reciprocal values

).

For each comparison, a pairwise comparison matrix is created. Based on the pairwise comparison matrix, the rankings are determined by inputting a priority vector. A consistent requirement is maintained for validation between the compared components. A consistency check is carried out using Saaty’s consistency ratio to ensure that the pairwise comparisons are properly done. Saaty’s relative measurement scale is utilized for scoring. The main phases of the AHP process include [51]:

• Phase 1: The hierarchical pattern of the decision problem is created.
• Phase 2: The opinions of the experts are collected. Using the AHP scale (shown in Table 2), the appropriate numbers are allocated to the experts’ opinions.
• Phase 3: The pairwise comparison is performed using Saaty’s 1–9-point scale for the decision problem.
• Phase 4: The consistency index (CI) is estimated.

Equation (1) [52] shows how the CI is used to estimate the consistency of the pairwise comparison matrix.

$$CI={\displaystyle \frac{{\lambda }_{max}-n}{n-1}}$$

(1)

The eigenvalue and number of major criteria denoted are ${\lambda }_{max}$ and n, respectively.

The consistency ratio (CR) is denoted as:

$$CR={\displaystyle \frac{CI}{RI}}$$

(2)

The RI represents the random index and is shown in

Table 3. Random consistency index values for computing the consistency ratio [54].

n	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
RI	0.00	0.00	0.058	0.90	1.12	1.24	1.32	1.41	1.45	1.49

. A major criterion in the CR is that it should be within a threshold of 0.1. When it exceeds this value, it is inaccurate [53]. The AHP approach is employed to determine the weights of the main criteria and sub-criteria after completing all phases.

3.3. Fuzzy-TOPSIS

The TOPSIS method was developed by Yoon and Hwang in 1981 [55]. The approach uses m parameters to evaluate n alternatives. The fundamental logic of this method determines the optimal positive and negative solutions. An ideal alternative has the shortest distance from the optimal positive solution and the greatest distance from the optimal negative option. TOPSIS’s simplicity and comprehensibility have made it a highly regarded Multi-Criteria Decision-Making technique. The idea behind this method is that the option that is chosen should be the farthest from the negative ideal solution (NIS) and the shortest distance to the positive ideal solution (PIS). The PIS is the solution that minimizes the cost criteria and maximizes the benefit criteria. In real-world applications, the TOPSIS approach is subject to numerous limitations, including the absence of distinct information regarding the situation and the presence of ambiguous and undefined problems.

The work of Chen [56] improved the TOPSIS method with triangular FNs, using a triangular method to estimate the distance between two triangular FNs. As previously noted, subjective human judgments are vulnerable to uncertainty, ambiguity, and vagueness, which brings us to fuzzy set theory. Words may be more ambiguous than numbers in terms of the precision of a selection.

The work of Zadeh [57] derived a fuzzy set theory to assist decision-makers in decreasing subjective and ambiguous decisions. A fuzzy set denotes a group of objects with a continuous grade. Due to the simplicity, a triangular fuzzy number is utilized in our work. The 0–9 hedonic scale is used to better present and depict the qualitative qualities, as shown in

Table 4. Linguistic variables of the BIM strategies.

Linguistic Variable	Fuzzy Numbers
Worst (W)	(1, 1, 3)
Poor (P)	(1, 3, 5)
Fair (F)	(3, 5, 7)
Good (G)	(5, 7, 9)
Best (B)	(7, 9, 9)

. Figure 2 shows the fuzzy numbers’ triangle membership function. The mathematical equations for the fuzzy set theory can be retrieved from Afrane et al. [58].

A collection of objects having membership grades between 0 and 1, where the membership grade is an intermediate value between 0 and 1, is referred to as a fuzzy set. An ambiguous subset ‘A’ is mapped from a real number [0, 1] to a value of x in X. The grade of membership of an element is 1 if it is entirely included in the set. If the membership grade is 0, the set is universal. The membership function µ_A(x) defines X, and it maps each element to signify that it is not a part of the set. Ambiguous circumstances are assigned values between 0 and 1. A triangular fuzzy number can be represented as (a₁, b₁, c₁). A fuzzy event is described by the parameters a1, b1, and c1, which respectively represent the smallest possible value, the most promising value, and the largest possible value. The subsequent section will examine several critical definitions and notations of fuzzy set theory. The triangular fuzzy numbers’ membership function is illustrated in Figure 2.

4. Result and Discussion

4.1. Results of AHP

In this work, the major and sub-barriers of BIM implementation in the construction industry have been analyzed. For this purpose, this study has used a group-based method of decision-making, where the technical, educational, economic, legal, organizational, and cultural barriers are considered as major barriers in the AHP model analysis. In the first stage, the weights of the major barriers are computed, and then the weights of the 20 sub-barriers are estimated in the second strategy. Figure 3 shows the hierarchical structure of the BIM barriers.

4.1.1. Results of Major Barriers

Figure 4 shows the weights of the major barriers computed using the AHP method. The responses of each respondent on the major barriers are presented in the Supplementary Document. The weight of technical barriers is 0.4374, which depicts that these represent the most significant barrier to BIM implementation in the construction industry in Nigeria. This finding underscores the critical challenges posed by technical issues such as software interoperability, lack of standardized processes, and insufficient technical expertise among professionals. The prominence of technical barriers aligns with previous studies, such as those by Olugboyega [60] and Olanrewaju et al. [61], which highlight the crucial role of technical factors in the successful adoption of BIM. This suggests a pressing need for targeted interventions, such as improving software compatibility, investing in technical training, and developing standardized BIM protocols. Addressing these technical challenges is essential for enhancing the effectiveness and efficiency of BIM implementation in the Nigerian construction industry. This provides valuable insights for policymakers, industry stakeholders, and practitioners, emphasizing the importance of overcoming technical barriers to realize the full potential of BIM in improving project outcomes and driving innovation in the construction sector. Education is the second most significant barrier to BIM proliferation in the construction industry in Nigeria, as seen in the results (with a weight of 0.2405). A major theme of the educational barrier is lack of awareness. This result portrays the critical need for increased educational efforts and awareness campaigns to bridge the knowledge gap in BIM technologies. The lack of awareness among industry professionals and stakeholders hinders the effective adoption and integration of BIM, as many are unaware of its potential benefits and applications. Moreover, this barrier is compounded by insufficient training programs and educational resources that are necessary to equip professionals with the skills required to effectively use BIM. The findings suggest that enhancing BIM education and training should be a priority for industry stakeholders and educational institutions. By doing so, the construction industry can develop a workforce that is proficient in BIM, thereby improving the overall efficiency and productivity of construction projects. Addressing this educational barrier requires collaborative efforts from government bodies, educational institutions, and industry leaders to develop comprehensive training programs, integrate BIM into academic curricula, and promote continuous professional development. This strategic approach will not only increase BIM awareness but also ensure that professionals are well-equipped to leverage BIM technologies effectively, ultimately driving the successful implementation of BIM in Nigeria’s construction industry. The third-ranked barrier based on weight is the economic barrier. The work by Ahmed [62] corroborated this, as they showed from an extensive list of 37 barriers to BIM that training expenses and the learning curve are too expensive. While, in our work, the financial constraints were not explicitly mentioned, based on the work of Ahmed, it can be deduced that the expansion of knowledge and training is hindered based on cost constraints. To resolve this limitation, it is crucial to explore strategies that can mitigate the financial burden of BIM training and education. One approach could involve seeking government subsidies or grants specifically aimed at enhancing BIM capabilities within the industry. Additionally, construction companies could form partnerships with educational institutions to develop cost-effective training programs tailored to industry needs. These partnerships could also facilitate the integration of BIM training into university curricula, ensuring that new graduates are already equipped with the necessary skills. Moreover, industry associations could play a pivotal role by offering affordable or even free training workshops and seminars to their members. Online learning platforms could be leveraged to provide flexible and accessible BIM courses, reducing the costs associated with traditional classroom training. By implementing these strategies, the financial barriers to BIM education and training can be significantly reduced, promoting wider adoption and more effective use of BIM in the construction industry. The emphasis should be on creating a sustainable model for BIM education that includes continuous professional development, ensuring that the workforce remains up to date with the latest advancements in BIM technologies. Such initiatives will not only address the educational barriers but also contribute to the overall growth and modernization of the construction industry in Nigeria. It is worth stating that the economic and educational barriers share a common theme, emphasizing the need for cost-effective, comprehensive educational strategies to enhance BIM adoption. The last three barriers, organizational, cultural, and legal issues, have weights of 0.0928, 0.0460, and 0.0313, respectively. Organizational barriers often stem from a lack of leadership support and resistance to change within the company structure, which hinder the adoption of new technologies like BIM. Cultural barriers include the entrenched practices and attitudes within the construction industry that resist innovation and change, further impeding the effective implementation of BIM. Lastly, legal issues involve the absence of clear regulations and contractual standards for BIM use, creating uncertainty and risk for firms looking to adopt this technology. These findings underscore the multifaceted nature of BIM adoption barriers. Organizational challenges highlight the need for strong leadership and change management strategies to foster a culture that embraces technological innovation. Addressing cultural barriers requires targeted efforts to shift industry attitudes and practices towards more modern, collaborative approaches. Legal barriers necessitate the development of standardized regulations and contracts that clearly define BIM responsibilities and liabilities, providing a secure framework for its implementation. To mitigate these barriers, construction firms should focus on leadership development and change management programs to encourage organizational support for BIM. Industry-wide initiatives to promote a culture of innovation and collaboration can help overcome cultural resistance. Finally, engaging with policymakers and industry bodies to establish clear legal frameworks will provide the necessary regulatory support for BIM adoption. By addressing these organizational, cultural, and legal barriers, the construction industry in Nigeria can better leverage BIM’s potential to enhance project efficiency, reduce costs, and improve overall outcomes.

4.1.2. Results of Sub-Barriers

A pairwise comparison is carried out of sub-barriers under each major barrier to establish a hierarchical structure.

Technical Barriers

The priority order of sub-barriers under the technical barriers is TB1 > TB2 > TB3, as shown in Figure 5. The most significant technical sub-barrier is limited access to advanced BIM technology in Nigeria, with a weight of 0.25661. The cause of this challenge is multifaceted. First, this is attributable to the exorbitant expenses that are associated with the acquisition and maintenance of BIM software and hardware. The investment in such technologies is difficult to rationalize for many Nigerian firms, particularly small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), as a result of their limited financial resources. Chan [63] found that places with sophisticated technological infrastructure are more likely to see the emergence of innovations like BIM, supporting the precedents and highlighting the need for an environment that fosters experimentation and study of new technologies.

The second most significant technical sub-barrier is difficulty in integrating BIM with other systems, having a weight of 0.25661. The largest barrier to BIM deployment, according to Bryde et al. [64], is shown to be a lack of data interoperability. This is the capacity of two or more systems or components to communicate information and use that information. Hall et al. [29] also found that the complexity and interoperability issues of BIM software pose significant challenges, particularly for SMEs in New Zealand, where the lack of government mandates exacerbates these technical difficulties. Interoperability was given a high ranking because it deals with cooperation and communication. Therefore, to achieve improved BIM interoperability, neutral data formats like Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) must be developed and applied. IFC describes how to share data in the AEC domain clearly and consistently. Even though IFC has been included in over 170 software programs thus far, further optimization work must be done to improve the accuracy of IFC data, especially regarding the data loss that occurs during the exchange [65].

In the third position in this category is the sub-barrier of compatibility issues with other programs, with a weight of 0.0514604. BIM applications may be created through software, but the best outcomes come from the interoperability of cross-disciplinary standards and platforms. The degree to which a firm integrates BIM technology with its workflow, rather than how well-prepared it is, determines the success of BIM adoption, allowing teams to modify technologies to fit their current work patterns [66].

Within this category, inadequate hardware/software to support BIM implementation is the sub-barrier that scored lowest, being placed in the fourth position and having a weight of 0.0333499. This is a result of several software companies leveraging BIM and creating additional tools to make BIM implementation in building projects easier. This outcome is consistent with the literature, which shows that software problems are not given much thought.

Education Barriers

The priority order of sub-barriers under the technical barriers is EB1 > EB2 > EB3, as shown in Figure 6. The most significant educational sub-barrier is limited awareness of potential benefits of BIM technology in Nigeria, with a weight of 0.173. A growing number of clients are unaware of the benefits of the BIM process, and thus they have no reason to use it, nor do they know how or where to even start. Government clients are particularly interested in BIM implementation, whereas private sector clients are less so, according to a study by Matarneh and Hamed [67]. From a survey conducted, a vast majority of the respondents concurred that information technology (IT) and, by extension, BIM expertise, competency, and skills are often lacking in the AEC, especially in production. In addition, most of the literature argues that BIM is intricate and complex [65]. Since collaboration is the foundation of BIM, its implementation must occur concurrently nationwide to achieve the necessary degree of cooperation across all AEC industry participants to maximize its advantages. The great majority of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and certain large firms, however, are unwilling to adopt BIM because they see it as highly risky or uncertain [68]. Due to their restrictions on communication, discontinuation of information exchange, and eventually laborious transition to BIM, these organizations prevent potential users from fully benefiting from BIM. In fact, in nations where BIM is an alternative option, this problem is thought to be among the most prevalent ones [69].

Limited awareness of the use of BIM was placed at second place in this category, obtaining a weight of 0.0457. Large businesses have embraced and used BIM as a new technology, and it has gradually been integrated with project management and even the management of enterprises. But SMEs do not know about BIM; they do not know what it is or how it fits in with the way they operate now. In the spread of BIM innovation, awareness is a stage that is distinct from the implementation of BIM. Because of obstacles and bottlenecks, not all knowledgeable people or organizations would adopt BIM, so the degree of implementation is typically lower than the level of awareness. The advantages of BIM for businesses are difficult to quantify [65]. This outcome illustrates how the use of Building Information Modeling in the construction sector is impacted by a lack of awareness of the potential benefits of BIM. This might be connected to the insufficiency of case study data regarding the advantages of BIM deployment in Nigeria. Additionally, universities have not offered formal courses to their students to broaden their understanding of the advantages of BIM. Furthermore, research on BIM has not received support from the government. This result was in line with the findings of Ogunmakinde and Umeh [70]. This is consistent with other research findings, which show that in the complex environment of the multidisciplinary AEC industry, there is a lack of knowledge pertaining to information and communication technologies in general. This emphasizes the necessity for workshops/seminars and training to be organized by various bodies.

Insufficient training in BIM and sustainable building obtained a weight of 0.0217 and thus placed third in this category. Since education and training are the foundation of BIM development, the AEC industry’s adoption of BIM has been dragged back by a shortage of appropriately qualified BIM professionals. According to the literature, one of the greatest obstacles to the adoption of BIM in the industry is the dearth of IT-educated individuals and competent BIM personnel. In order for a firm to properly utilize BIM technology, new employees with strong BIM usage expertise should be hired, or existing employees should be retrained to support organizational and behavioral changes. Closing the gap in BIM acceptance requires acquiring the necessary skills, and investigating the possibility of educating recent graduates so that businesses of all sizes may hire them and utilize their expertise to adopt BIM is one suggested remedy [71]. Moreover, the solutions put forward by Omar and Dulaimi [68] are consistent with the claims made in the literature, where researchers contend that government education initiatives should be created and funded in order to provide the sector with a realistic and authentic knowledge of BIM. These training courses ought to be presented with an outline of the lessons learned from actual case studies in order to demonstrate the proper and efficient ways to use BIM.

Economic Barriers

The priority order of sub-barriers under the economic barriers is EC1 > EC2 > EC3 > EC4, as shown in Figure 7. Construction companies must acquire the proper hardware and software, train their employees on how to use it, and install BIM, all of which would raise the entire cost of the project [72]. High costs associated with BIM, including software acquisition [23], licensing [73], and training [74], are consistently identified as significant obstacles. The most significant economic sub-barrier is high initial cost of BIM implementation in Nigeria, having a weight of 0.088573. One of the main obstacles in the building sector, according to reports, is the high cost of implementing BIM. Since software packages require updates regularly, the total cost of BIM installation must account for update fees. This outcome demonstrates how the high cost of software affects the adoption of BIM in the building sector. Thus, building companies ought to set aside a portion of their earnings for the acquisition of relevant software. Software companies must make increasing investments as well as providing high-caliber software at a reduced cost of development.

The second most significant sub-barrier in this category is the high cost of training workers, which has a weight of 0.0411799. Because BIM is a new technology, using it requires specific knowledge and training. Stated differently, the expense of practitioner training will have a marginal impact on the use of BIM in Nigeria’s building industry. This is because using BIM has a significant impact on lowering project costs overall, making training costs insignificant. Even though education and training have a very beneficial influence on the adoption of BIM, one problem with education and training that was brought up by a researcher was the age demographic. This was noted because numerous departments within the sector were fragmented, and many of the personnel were physically older and accustomed to the current system, so they might not be motivated to learn new technology skills [75].

The third most significant sub-barrier in the category of economic barriers is the high cost of hiring skilled BIM professionals, which has a weight of 0.013693. The high cost of hiring qualified personnel to run BIM software is a frequent barrier to the adoption of BIM, with a greater need for than supply of BIM operators, coordinators, experts, and managers in Nigeria. The number of BIM experts in Nigeria has been impacted by the high expense of training and education within the country. The significance of knowledge and skills in adopting and using BIM has been emphasized by several scholars. Organizations are generally unable to make the switch to BIM due to this sub-barrier [76]. It is also evident that there is a clear correlation between the high expense of human resources and the shortage of specialists [35]. Professional workers are vital to a business, and developing talent in the field of BIM technology is a major component in determining the scope and depth of BIM technological advancement [77].

The fourth and least significant sub-barrier in the category of economic barriers is difficulty in estimating benefits, having a weight of 0.0085546. Based on past experiences, BIM users are most concerned about the financial expenditures involved in adopting BIM, which include, but are not limited to, the cost of hardware, software, licensing fees, upgrading, project management, and continuing maintenance [65]. The majority of stakeholders believe that investing in BIM has significant risks and doubt the potential for a favorable return on investment. This difficulty is made worse by the expensive software and training that increase the cost of BIM investment. One of the main obstacles to the widespread use of BIM is its high implementation costs, which may be partially accounted for by the large number of small and medium-sized businesses (SMEs) in the Nigerian AEC sector. For small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), adopting and implementing BIM sustainably presents a significant challenge due to factors including limited funding and high implementation costs [6]. These SMEs are distinguished by their lack of funding for BIM investments and their perception of BIM as a potentially risky venture. However, because of their special qualities, SMEs stand to benefit more from BIM acceptance and implementation than large companies.

Organizational Barriers

The priority order of sub-barriers under the organizational barriers is OG1 > OG2 > OG3, as shown in Figure 8. The most significant organizational sub-barrier is resistance to change in the organization, having a weight of 0.064595. The attitudes, beliefs, customs, and behaviors of individuals inside an organization are reflected in its culture. A few individuals are more interested in adopting innovations in organizational culture than others, because they believe that they are easier to use and more valuable than others [70]. The intricacy of BIM tools can also result in a reluctance to change and reinforce SMEs’ perceptions of the risks associated with BIM. Adopting BIM necessitates substantial modifications to company processes, and this implies a significant shift in the organization’s culture. This outcome makes it very evident how this component affects BIM use in the building sector, as all building firms operating in Nigeria are accustomed to carrying out the construction process by utilizing conventional techniques to minimize risks and difficulties. An organization’s culture must shift when new procedures are implemented [78].

Insufficient collaboration and communication holds the second position in this sub-barrier, having a weight of 0.019515. The fragmented structure of the construction industry makes it challenging for numerous parties to cooperate and share information. Meanwhile, it is thought that the most important factor is participants’ willingness to disclose information. By doing away with conventional boundaries between businesses, BIM fosters more collaboration by facilitating the sharing of project data. The construction industry’s production efficiency is significantly worse than that of other industries due to a lack of collaboration consciousness and 2D-based work habits. This is detrimental to the sustained growth of SMEs. This implies that to comply with the criteria of BIM application, members must modify their responsibilities and the workflow of their company. Any flaws or inaccuracies observed in the project data are more appropriately viewed as the result of a lack of communication between the site staff and designers than as software flaws [79]. All parties involved must work together to adopt BIM; otherwise, a dispute may arise.

Lastly, the lack of clear roles in the organization is placed at the third position in this sub-barrier, having obtained a weight of 0.0086901. The system approach studies make clear the role that the organization plays in the effective application and implementation of BIM. According to one study, users from various engineering specialties have varied demands, and as a result, they have diverse working relationships with shared BIM models [80]. According to Villena-Manzanares et al. [81], to encourage and support design teams’ efficient use of technology and foster communication and teamwork, the company must also modify its internal procedures, including senior management assistance.

Cultural Barriers

The priority order of sub-barriers under the category of cultural barriers is CU1 > CU2 > CU3, as shown in Figure 9. The most significant sub-barrier under the category of cultural barriers is limited acceptance and adoption in some cultures, having a weight of 0.029993. It was observed that one of the variables influencing BIM acceptance and adoption was the absence of government assistance or incentives, which helped overcome the majority of these issues. The literature emphasizes the necessity of government intervention as a result. The use of BIM is now required for all large projects acquiring substantial public money, which has enabled most countries, including the UK, USA, Singapore, and Finland, to achieve progress [82].

The second significant sub-barrier in this category is resistance to a new way of thinking or working, which has a weight of 0.012248. Resistance to a new way of thinking is seen as a deterrent to BIM adoption. Since most people are accustomed to the software they use, switching to a new version might be challenging for them, even if it might be more sophisticated. When using BIM, one must change their perspective from creating line drawings to creating three-dimensional drawings that include walls, windows, doors, and other architectural elements [83].

Lastly, the third most significant sub-barrier in this category is limited understanding of the value of sustainable building, which has a weight of 0.003759. Resistance to change can be facilitated by a lack of understanding of the advantages of BIM for sustainable building, as certain stakeholders are not persuaded that altering existing procedures and practices is essential [71]. A researcher conducted an online survey which looked into a variety of industry professionals who use BIM tools to deliver green buildings. The results indicated that BIM could greatly facilitate green construction and that, if pertinent challenges could be identified and successfully addressed, it is anticipated that BIM will be widely used in the future.

Legal Barriers

The priority order of sub-barriers under the legal barriers is LE1 > LE2 > LE3, as shown in Figure 10. The most significant sub-barrier in this category is the limited availability of standard contracts for BIM implementation, having a weight of 0.022423. The institutionalization and modification of processes and components of contracts, standards, and laws provide another obstacle to the use of BIM. The AEC business is still dominated by traditional contract procurement methods, which makes it difficult to collaborate optimally and prevents BIM from yielding its full potential. Organizations encounter challenges when defining contracts in a BIM context, with respect to intellectual property ownership, copyright protection, and dispute resolution procedures. These challenges stem from legal and contractual perspectives [76]. In the broader AEC industry, disputes related to design responsibility, intellectual property rights, and lack of standardization are prevalent, necessitating strategies like the adoption of appropriate contract suites and the establishment of a common data environment [84]. In China, legal barriers are among the critical challenges impeding BIM implementation, alongside cultural and management issues [85]. The Malaysian construction industry also faces legal challenges, particularly concerning ownership of BIM models and intellectual property rights, which require adjustments in contract clauses to fit BIM practices [86]. Furthermore, several academics have expressed grave concerns regarding the absence of collective BIM standards that accurately reflect the characteristics of the AEC sector in Nigeria. They have suggested that the government should create and disseminate BIM execution guidelines and finance BIM training initiatives as a means of encouraging SMEs to invest in BIM [68].

The second most significant sub-barrier in this category consists of legal uncertainties about liability issues in BIM implementation, which has a weight of 0.006213. The building business is a complicated process that requires considerable knowledge and a large workforce. It might be difficult to identify erroneous tasks when design information is created collaboratively by several people. Because there is no specific legislation addressing BIM conflicts, SMEs are concerned about their interests [66]. For SMEs, settling legal and contractual conflicts is crucial. Compared to huge corporations, SMEs are more concerned with short-term goals. To protect their interests, SMEs will choose traditional delivery of projects over BIM when there is potential for risk. Collaboration is a key component of BIM programs, as participants use components that have been developed or generated by others to coordinate their work. However, traditional legal frameworks applied to BIM projects seldom take into account the sense of collaboration that BIM fosters.

The third most significant sub-barrier under the legal barriers category is difficulty in negotiating BIM contracts and agreements, which has a weight of 0.002664. The precise information that each participant is accountable for communicating can be specified by regulation, and while the risk is distributed equitably by legislation, the benefit must also be distributed. In a situation where there is increased productivity, a portion of the owner’s earnings must be distributed to the project participants. To encourage small and medium-sized businesses to embrace BIM, this should be included in the contract [66]. Through this, the barrier of legal uncertainties about liability issues can also be well governed.

4.1.3. Final Ranking of Sub-Barriers

In estimating the sub-barriers, the local priority weight is multiplied by the weight of each major barrier. The result shows the order of significance as TB1 > EB1 > TB2 > EC1 > OG1 > TB3 > EB2 > EC2 > TB4 > CU1 > LE1 > EB3 > OG2 > EC3 > CU2 > OG3 > EC4 > LE2 > CU3 > LE3. Figure 11 shows a graphical representation of the final ranking of the sub-barriers. We see that the top five barriers include barriers due to technical, educational, and organizational limitations. The five least significant barriers include economic, organization, cultural, and legal limitations. A key point from this result is that technical barriers are very critical to BIM implementation in Nigeria, as they are mainly comprised in the top ranks and absent in the lower-ranked barriers. It is also important to note that in the top-ranked barriers, there are sub-barriers from multiple major barriers. This connotes that BIM implementation is influenced by a complex interplay of various factors, not just isolated to a single category. Addressing these top-ranked barriers requires a comprehensive approach that considers the interdependencies between technical, educational, and organizational aspects. It also underscores the need for collaborative efforts among stakeholders to effectively mitigate these critical barriers for successful BIM adoption in Nigeria’s construction industry.

4.2. Results and Discussion of Fuzzy-TOPSIS for Strategies for BIM Implementation

The results of each respondent used in estimating the Fuzzy-TOPSIS methodology for determining the strategies to improve BIM integration in the construction industry are presented in the Supplementary Document. In this work, we have presented the analysis for each respondent to further show the variation in perspectives and preferences among the experts consulted. The Fuzzy-TOPSIS method helps in ranking the strategies by considering the best (positive ideal) and worst (negative ideal) solutions. This analysis allows us to determine which strategies are deemed most effective in overcoming the barriers to BIM implementation. Each respondent’s input was carefully analyzed to derive the priority weights for various strategies. These strategies were then ranked based on their closeness coefficients (CCi), which indicate their relative importance and effectiveness.

Table 5. Ranking of strategies to overcome BIM integration in the construction industry for all respondents.

Proposed Strategies	Respondent I	Respondent II	Respondent III	Respondent IV	Respondent V	Respondent VI
Government policies	8	4	4	5	5	2
Training and capacity building	7	6	7	6	6	6
Sustainability goals and metrics for BIM implementation	5	7	8	7	7	7
Comprehensive training and implementation program	6	8	5	8	8	8
Fostering a culture of innovation	3	1	2	3	3	5
Data management strategy implementation	4	2	6	4	4	3
BIM standard and guidelines	2	5	1	2	2	4
Setting BIM evaluation framework	1	3	3	1	1	1

shows the ranking of various strategies proposed to overcome BIM integration challenges in the construction industry, based on the responses of six different respondents. Each strategy is ranked on a scale, with lower numbers indicating higher priority or perceived effectiveness. The results indicate that standardization, evaluation frameworks, and structured training programs are seen as critical factors for successful BIM adoption in the construction industry. Figure 11 and Figure 12 show the rank of the strategies for BIM implementation. From the result, we see that the priority strategy recommended was setting a BIM evaluation framework. This strategy was consistently ranked highest among respondents due to its critical role in providing a structured approach to assess and measure the effectiveness of BIM implementation. By establishing clear evaluation criteria and metrics, stakeholders can better understand the impact of BIM on project outcomes and make informed decisions to optimize its use. The BIM evaluation framework is a structured approach designed to assess and measure the effectiveness and impact of Building Information Modeling (BIM) implementation within the construction industry [87]. This framework plays a crucial role in providing stakeholders with a systematic method to evaluate BIM practices, identify areas for improvement, and ensure that the objectives of BIM adoption are being met. The evaluation framework starts with the definition of clear objectives and goals that align with the strategic aims of the organization and the specific benefits expected from BIM implementation [88]. These goals might include improving project efficiency, reducing costs, enhancing collaboration, and increasing the accuracy and quality of construction projects. Central to the framework is the establishment of key performance indicators (KPIs), which provide quantifiable metrics to measure the success of BIM implementation. KPIs might include metrics such as time savings, cost reductions, error reduction rates, and levels of stakeholder collaboration [89]. These indicators enable organizations to track progress and make data-driven decisions. Moreover, the framework incorporates regular monitoring and reporting mechanisms. Continuous monitoring ensures that BIM practices are consistently aligned with the set objectives, while periodic reporting provides insights into performance trends and areas needing attention. This approach helps in maintaining accountability and transparency throughout the BIM adoption process. Additionally, the framework emphasizes the importance of feedback loops. By gathering feedback from all stakeholders involved—ranging from project managers to on-site workers—organizations can gain comprehensive insights into the practical challenges and successes of BIM implementation. This feedback is vital for refining BIM strategies and practices, ensuring that they remain effective and relevant, especially in a developing nation like Nigeria.

Another important strategy recommended was that of BIM standards and guidelines. This strategy is crucial for ensuring consistency, interoperability, and best practices across all projects utilizing BIM technology [90]. By having standardized procedures and guidelines, the construction industry can overcome many of the challenges associated with BIM implementation. Standardization also plays a vital role in software interoperability. One of the significant barriers to BIM implementation in Nigeria consists of the compatibility issues between different software platforms. By establishing standards, it becomes easier to integrate various BIM tools and technologies, ensuring that they can work together seamlessly. This integration is essential for creating a unified BIM model that can be used throughout the project lifecycle, from design and construction to operation and maintenance [91]. The development and adoption of national or industry-wide BIM standards can also drive innovation and continuous improvement. Standards often incorporate the latest advancements and best practices, encouraging firms to stay up to date with new technologies and methodologies. This forward-looking approach fosters a culture of innovation within the industry, promoting the adoption of cutting-edge solutions that can enhance project outcomes. Establishing BIM standards and guidelines is a fundamental strategy for overcoming the barriers to BIM implementation in Nigeria. It provides a structured and consistent approach that facilitates better collaboration, software interoperability, and efficient workflows. By adopting standardized practices, the construction industry can enhance the effectiveness of BIM, ultimately leading to improved project performance and greater adoption of BIM technologies across the sector.

5. Policy Recommendations

Based on the analysis and results, several policy recommendations are proposed to enhance the adoption and implementation of BIM in Nigeria’s construction industry. First, it is crucial to develop and enforce a national standard for BIM practices to ensure consistency, interoperability, and best practices across all projects. This standardization will help streamline processes, reduce errors, and facilitate better collaboration among stakeholders. Effective collaboration processes, supported by standardized data and issue management, have been shown to be vital for overcoming communication barriers in BIM adoption [92]. In infrastructure projects, data standardization is critical for digitalization and efficiency, as demonstrated by the Czech Republic’s efforts to develop a comprehensive data standard [93]. Furthermore, the development of BIM standards in the UK and USA underscores the importance of consensus-building and end-user participation in creating effective digital infrastructures for construction projects [94].

Additionally, implementing a comprehensive BIM evaluation framework is essential to assess and measure the effectiveness of BIM implementation. This framework should include clear objectives, key performance indicators (KPIs), regular monitoring, and feedback mechanisms to ensure continuous improvement and alignment with organizational goals. Rong et al. [95] developed an indicator evaluation framework for BIM application performance, which includes benefit and cost factors, and applied it to a grid information modeling system in an ultra-high voltage (UHV) substation project. This framework uses the AHP to weigh indicators and establishes a performance index through cost–benefit analysis, demonstrating its utility in promoting BIM applications in the power generation construction industry. Similarly, Pidgeon and Dawood [96] introduced a collaborative BIM implementation framework, verified and validated through a real-world project in London. This framework emphasizes transparency and objectivism, using a Delphi model to prioritize key areas such as constraints and stakeholder requirements, thereby enhancing information requirements and project delivery. Additionally, Vilutiene et al. [97] proposed a system of indicators to measure BIM project performance, categorizing them into quantitative and qualitative metrics, which were applied in a real construction project to assess BIM deployment levels and progress towards project goals.

Enhancing technical training and education is another critical recommendation. There should be significant investment in comprehensive training programs and educational resources to bridge the knowledge gap in BIM technologies. Collaboration with educational institutions to integrate BIM into academic curricula and promote continuous professional development is also necessary. Furthermore, exploring government subsidies, grants, and partnerships with educational institutions can help mitigate the financial burden of BIM training and education, making it more accessible to small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).

Fostering a culture of innovation within the construction industry is also vital. Encouraging openness to new technologies and methodologies through industry-wide initiatives and leadership development programs can help shift attitudes and practices towards more modern, collaborative approaches. Additionally, engaging with policymakers and industry bodies to establish standardized regulations and contracts for BIM use will provide a secure framework for BIM adoption, reducing uncertainties and risks for firms looking to implement this technology. In Europe, a significant number of countries have introduced or plan to introduce BIM mandates, which are instrumental in advancing construction practices and influencing policy frameworks [98]. In Malaysia, the adoption of BIM in public projects is facilitated by the Public Works Department’s Standard Form of Contract, which aligns with the design-and-build procurement method [99]. Similarly, in Hong Kong, a combination of regulatory, economic, cooperative, and standard-based policy instruments has been employed to promote BIM adoption, demonstrating the varied impacts of policy instruments on BIM implementation [100].

6. New Insights into BIM Development in Developing Nations

Scaling Building Information Modeling (BIM) in developing nations requires a strategic approach that addresses financial, technological, and capacity-building barriers. Many developing countries lack the necessary digital infrastructure, making it difficult to implement high-end BIM software. A practical solution is to promote cloud-based BIM solutions that reduce the need for high computing power. Additionally, localized BIM tools that integrate regional construction codes and function efficiently on lower-spec devices can enhance accessibility.

Public–private partnerships (PPPs) can play a critical role in accelerating BIM adoption. Governments should collaborate with private firms to co-fund BIM implementation in public projects, while offering tax incentives and subsidies to encourage private sector participation. Multilateral development banks, such as the World Bank and the African Development Bank (AfDB), can also support BIM adoption in large-scale infrastructure projects, reducing the financial burden on local industries.

The high cost of BIM software and training remains a significant obstacle, particularly for small and medium-sized construction firms. A potential solution is to introduce a BIM as a Service (BIMaaS) model, where companies can access BIM tools through a subscription-based approach, reducing upfront investment. Establishing BIM resource hubs where small firms can rent software and receive technical support would further promote adoption.

Integrating BIM with emerging technologies can enhance efficiency and provide cost-effective solutions for construction projects. For instance, combining BIM with drones for site surveys and IoT sensors for real-time project monitoring can improve project accuracy. Additionally, mobile BIM applications can provide on-site access to models via smartphones, allowing project teams to work more efficiently without requiring expensive hardware.

Addressing the skills gap is another crucial step in scaling BIM adoption. Many professionals lack the necessary expertise due to the high cost of training and certification. To bridge this gap, affordable, modular BIM training programs should be developed through online platforms such as Coursera and Udemy. Establishing BIM academies in collaboration with universities and vocational training centers can further enhance workforce capabilities. Governments and industry associations can also introduce micro-certifications in BIM fundamentals, enabling professionals to upskill gradually.

Regulatory frameworks can drive widespread BIM adoption by making its use mandatory for public sector projects. Implementing phased BIM mandates ensures a smooth transition while giving companies time to adapt. Streamlining BIM-based project approvals can also reduce delays and improve efficiency. Recognizing firms that successfully implement BIM through government awards or incentives can further encourage adoption.

The high cost of proprietary BIM software is another challenge for developing countries. One way to overcome this is by promoting open-source BIM platforms such as FreeCAD and IFC-based tools, which provide cost-effective alternatives to expensive commercial software. Developing country-specific BIM standards that align with international best practices but incorporate local construction methods can also help standardize BIM implementation.

Finally, localized content and language support can improve accessibility and usability. Many BIM platforms lack region-specific templates, making it difficult for engineers to work with local materials and designs. Creating localized BIM libraries that include materials, structural designs, and workflows tailored to regional practices can enhance adoption. Additionally, integrating multi-language support into BIM platforms can make the technology more user-friendly for a diverse workforce.

In conclusion, scaling BIM in developing nations requires a multifaceted approach that combines affordable technology, policy support, financial incentives, and capacity building. By addressing the financial, infrastructural, and training barriers, BIM can be successfully integrated into construction workflows, leading to greater efficiency, cost savings, and sustainable development.

7. Conclusions

This study revealed several critical insights regarding BIM implementation in Nigeria’s construction industry. The key findings from the study are:

• Technical barriers such as limited access to advanced BIM technology, lack of standardization, and technical expertise are the most significant obstacles to BIM adoption in Nigeria.
• Educational barriers, such as low awareness and inadequate training programs, further hinder widespread BIM implementation.
• Economic constraints also play a critical role, limiting investments in BIM tools and training.

Addressing these challenges requires:

• Establishing national BIM standards and evaluation frameworks.
• Enhancing technical training and education for industry professionals.
• Providing financial support and incentives for BIM adoption.
• Fostering a culture of innovation and collaboration.
• Developing clear legal frameworks to support BIM integration.

Through collaborative efforts and targeted interventions, Nigeria can overcome the challenges and fully leverage the benefits of BIM technology.