Buildings

36 pages, 7218 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effectiveness of Passive CFRP and Active Fe-SMA Confinement in Enhancing Drift Capacity and Seismic Performance of RC Columns Under Extreme Drift Levels

by Adel Al Ekkawi and Raafat El-Hacha

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 243; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010243 - 5 Jan 2026

Viewed by 485

Abstract

This study presents an experimental investigation into the seismic performance of seismically deficient reinforced concrete (RC) bridge columns retrofitted with passive and active confinement systems. Four single-cantilever RC columns, representing 1/3-scale bridge piers, were constructed with poor transverse reinforcement detailing to simulate seismic [...] Read more.

This study presents an experimental investigation into the seismic performance of seismically deficient reinforced concrete (RC) bridge columns retrofitted with passive and active confinement systems. Four single-cantilever RC columns, representing 1/3-scale bridge piers, were constructed with poor transverse reinforcement detailing to simulate seismic deficiency. One column was left un-strengthened for baseline comparison, while the remaining three were retrofitted using: (1) a CFRP jacket, (2) welded Fe-SMA plates, and (3) bolted Fe-SMA plates. All columns were subjected to quasi-static lateral cyclic push-only loading reaching extreme drift levels exceeding 16% and high loading rates up to 6 mm/s. The study specifically explores the confinement effectiveness of CFRP and thermally activated Fe-SMA plates, comparing their contributions to lateral strength, ductility, energy dissipation, failure mode, and damage suppression. The results show that while the as-built column failed at 3.65% drift due to brittle flexural-shear failure, all retrofitted columns demonstrated significantly enhanced ductility, drift capacity, and post-peak behaviour. The CFRP and Fe-SMA jackets effectively delayed damage initiation, minimized core degradation, and improved energy dissipation. The bolted Fe-SMA system exhibited the highest and full restoration of lateral strength, while the welded system achieved the greatest increase in cumulative energy dissipation of around 40%. This research highlights the practical advantages and seismic effectiveness of Fe-SMA and CFRP confinement systems under extreme drift levels. However, future work should explore full-scale column applications, refine anchorage techniques for improved composite interaction, and investigate long-term durability under cyclic environmental conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Fiber-Reinforced Composite Materials in Building and Bridge Applications)

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26 pages, 10535 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research and Design of Key System of Jacking Formwork for Super High-Rise Building

by Fankui Zeng, Shuxin Yang, Hua Huang, Mengxue Guo and Gongfan Wang

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 242; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010242 - 5 Jan 2026

Viewed by 390

Abstract

To enhance construction efficiency and structural stability, this study investigates the mechanical behavior and deformation characteristics of a jacking steel platform system used in the core-tube construction of a supertall building. Field monitoring was conducted on site to record stress, settlement, and inclination [...] Read more.

To enhance construction efficiency and structural stability, this study investigates the mechanical behavior and deformation characteristics of a jacking steel platform system used in the core-tube construction of a supertall building. Field monitoring was conducted on site to record stress, settlement, and inclination during the jacking, construction, and self-climbing stages. A finite element model was developed to simulate the platform’s mechanical response and validated against the field measurements. Results indicate that stress and deformation remained within safe limits throughout all stages, and the vertical deformation difference between the core tube and the outer frame was primarily governed by concrete shrinkage and creep. An improved modular design was proposed to address connection limitations in the steel truss, and cross-section optimization was applied using the stress ratio method. Comparative analysis against the original diamond-type truss baseline showed that the improved system increased overall strength by 5.88% and stiffness by 4.82% while enhancing truss versatility and structural stability. These findings provide a technical basis for the modular design and optimization of jacking steel platform systems, contributing to safer and more efficient construction practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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18 pages, 2369 KB

Open AccessArticle

On-Site Monitoring and Numerical Simulation of Stability During Staged Excavation of Deep-Cutting Slope

by Keyou Shi, Ze Liu and Zhenhua Xu

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 241; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010241 - 5 Jan 2026

Viewed by 363

Abstract

To investigate the stability evolution pattern of deep-cutting slopes during staged excavation, on-site monitoring was conducted on the lateral displacement, anchor bolt axial force, and anchor cable anchoring force of the deep-cutting slope at Section EK1 + 640 of the Zhengxi Expressway. Additionally, [...] Read more.

To investigate the stability evolution pattern of deep-cutting slopes during staged excavation, on-site monitoring was conducted on the lateral displacement, anchor bolt axial force, and anchor cable anchoring force of the deep-cutting slope at Section EK1 + 640 of the Zhengxi Expressway. Additionally, FLAC3D was employed to study the impact of anchor cable anchoring force loss on slope stability. The research results indicate the following: During the staged excavation, the middle and lower parts of the slope exhibited significant lateral displacement, with a maximum displacement amplitude reaching 26.3 mm; as the monitoring period progressed, the axial force of anchor bolts located in the lower part of each slope stage gradually exceeded that of those in the upper part, and the closer an anchor bolt to the top of each slope stage, the smaller the increment in its axial force; for anchor cables installed at the top of each slope stage, the anchoring force loss rate reached 16.4%, which was significantly higher than that of cables in other positions. Meanwhile, these anchor cables were more significantly affected by environmental changes and construction disturbances, and the loss of anchor cable anchoring force exerted a notable influence on the slope’s overall stability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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21 pages, 4813 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Authority to Everyday Practice: Authorized Heritage Discourse and Parasitic Adaptive Reuse in Siheyuan

by Minpei Xu and Lihe Chen

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 240; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010240 - 5 Jan 2026

Viewed by 723

Abstract

Authorized Heritage Discourse (AHD) equates heritage value with visual and material purity, marginalizing resident-led changes as damage. This study examines “parasitic” additions to Beijing’s siheyuan—vernacular, externally attached modules used to meet modern living needs—as a critical site of negotiation. Combining spatial mapping of [...] Read more.

Authorized Heritage Discourse (AHD) equates heritage value with visual and material purity, marginalizing resident-led changes as damage. This study examines “parasitic” additions to Beijing’s siheyuan—vernacular, externally attached modules used to meet modern living needs—as a critical site of negotiation. Combining spatial mapping of 48 cases, a resident survey (n = 185), and stakeholder interviews (n = 13) conducted between April 2023 and June 2025, we identify a fundamental discursive rupture: residents overwhelmingly justify adaptations on “living rights” grounds (support rate ≈ 76.3%), while professionals uphold aesthetic conservation. We theorize these interventions as a “subversive compromise,” preserving the historic shell while embedding modern functionality, thus co-producing a state of “negotiated authenticity.” While limited by non-probability sampling, the findings call for a governance shift from rigid form-based rules to performance- and rights-oriented pathways, including provisional permits and participatory review. The study underscores the need to reconcile visual integrity with dwelling rights to sustain living heritage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

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46 pages, 5188 KB

Open AccessReview

Digital Maturity Assessment Tools for the Construction Industry: A PRISMA-ScR Scoping Review

by Rahat Ullah, Joe Harrington, Adhban Farea, Michal Otreba, Sean Carroll and Ted McKenna

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010239 - 5 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2592

Abstract

This paper presents a PRISMA-ScR scoping review of 20 digital maturity assessment tools in the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) sector and wider business domains. The objective is to compare key features including assessment matrices, maturity dimensions, completion time, accessibility, and platform availability. [...] Read more.

This paper presents a PRISMA-ScR scoping review of 20 digital maturity assessment tools in the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) sector and wider business domains. The objective is to compare key features including assessment matrices, maturity dimensions, completion time, accessibility, and platform availability. The review follows predefined eligibility criteria and a structured screening process to identify and analyse tool frameworks in terms of scope, metrics, platform type, usability, and focus areas. Most tools primarily target the AEC sector, while some address broader organisational digital transformation. Common maturity areas include technology, organisation, data management, and processes. The analysis highlights limitations such as underemphasis on people, strategy, policy, skills development, standards, and financial resources, as well as the fragmented integration of maturity components. A combined bottom-up (scoring) and top-down (dimension structuring) approach is recommended for future tool development. The review provides insights for practitioners when selecting tools and proposes guidelines for creating more comprehensive and integrated maturity models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)

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16 pages, 1790 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Influence of the Sintering Process on the Performance of Paper-Mill Sludge–Shale Bricks

by Qing-Peng Meng, Jun-Yi Zeng, You Wu and Li Li

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 238; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010238 - 5 Jan 2026

Viewed by 433

Abstract

To achieve the resource utilization of solid waste generated from the papermaking process, this study proposes a method for preparing sintered bricks by partially replacing shale with paper-mill sludge. The brick samples were prepared through a process of mixing in proportion, extrusion molding, [...] Read more.

To achieve the resource utilization of solid waste generated from the papermaking process, this study proposes a method for preparing sintered bricks by partially replacing shale with paper-mill sludge. The brick samples were prepared through a process of mixing in proportion, extrusion molding, drying and roasting. An orthogonal experimental design was employed to investigate the effects of sintering temperature, raw material proportion, and holding time on the physical and mechanical properties of the bricks. The results indicate that the optimal technological parameters are determined as follows: a raw material proportion (paper-mill sludge:shale) of 30:70, a sintering temperature of 1050 °C, a holding time of 8 h, and a heating rate of 1 °C/min. Under these conditions, the produced paper-mill sludge–shale bricks exhibited a compressive strength of 14.91 MPa, a flexural strength of 8.26 MPa, a water absorption of 12.7%, and a bulk density of 1712 kg/m³. These performance indicators meet the requirements for Grade MU10 specified in the national standard Sintered Common Bricks (GB/T 5101-2017). Regarding microscopic analysis, the SEM results reveal significant liquid-phase sintering within the brick body at 1050 °C, while XRD analysis confirmed the presence of stable quartz, alumina, and hematite phases, which contribute to enhancing the mechanical properties and densification of the bricks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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20 pages, 4098 KB

Open AccessArticle

Relationships Between Ultrasonic-Based Elastic Modulus Loss, Mass Loss and Strength Loss in Two Hardwoods Commonly Used in Northern Chinese Timber Heritage

by Panpan Liu, Yijie Gao, Sok Yee Yeo, Xingxia Ma and Hiroatsu Fukuda

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 237; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010237 - 5 Jan 2026

Viewed by 297

Abstract

Assessing decay-induced mechanical deterioration in hardwood components is essential for the conservation of northern Chinese timber heritage, where structural members such as the Dou and Gong have been exposed to complex environments for centuries. Within a unified experimental framework, this study systematically investigated [...] Read more.

Assessing decay-induced mechanical deterioration in hardwood components is essential for the conservation of northern Chinese timber heritage, where structural members such as the Dou and Gong have been exposed to complex environments for centuries. Within a unified experimental framework, this study systematically investigated the mechanical degradation behavior of two hardwood species commonly used in traditional timber buildings in northern China—elm (Ulmus pumila L.) and Chinese scholar tree (Styphnolobium japonicum (L.) Schott)—subjected to controlled brown-rot fungal decay (Gloeophyllum trabeum) over decay durations of 0–6 months. Four mechanical loading configurations were considered: tension, bending, compression parallel to grain and compression perpendicular to grain. Decay progression was quantitatively characterized using mass loss rate (MLR), ultrasonic elastic modulus loss rate (ELR) and strength loss ratio (SLR). The two hardwoods exhibited distinct material- and loading-dependent deterioration patterns. Elm showed faster and more variable degradation, with clearer time-dependent strength loss under tension and bending, whereas Chinese scholar tree displayed slower and more scattered strength deterioration. For both species, elastic modulus reduction generally preceded measurable mass loss, indicating that modulus-based indicators are more sensitive to decay progression under the tested conditions. Correlation analyses further indicate that ELR tends to show more stable and consistent associations with strength loss than MLR across most loading modes. Overall, the results suggest that elastic modulus–based ultrasonic indicators have potential advantages for characterizing mechanical deterioration under controlled decay conditions. However, the findings are limited to the tested materials, decay scenarios and loading configurations, and further validation on aged or naturally decayed components is required before in situ application to heritage structures can be established. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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30 pages, 40878 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Linear and Bi-Linear Stress–Strain Approximations for Finite Element Modelling of Extended End-Plate Moment Connections

by Iman Rahchamandi, Mohammad Reza Tavassoli, Reza Esmaeilabadi and Saeed Banihashemi

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 236; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010236 - 5 Jan 2026

Viewed by 514

Abstract

This study investigates the finite element analysis (FEA) of beam-to-column bolted extended end-plate moment connections, with a focus on accurately reproducing plastic rotational stiffness. Existing FEA results for six experimentally tested connections from the literature show substantial discrepancies in the plastic range, despite [...] Read more.

This study investigates the finite element analysis (FEA) of beam-to-column bolted extended end-plate moment connections, with a focus on accurately reproducing plastic rotational stiffness. Existing FEA results for six experimentally tested connections from the literature show substantial discrepancies in the plastic range, despite acceptable elastic stiffness. These discrepancies are traced to conventional material modelling practices, where only yield and ultimate stresses are specified, engineering stress–strain data are used directly, and the minimum elongation is taken as the strain at ultimate stress. To address these limitations, the connections are re-modelled in ABAQUS using (i) a multi-linear approximation for the plastic stress–strain behaviour of mild steel plates, and (ii) a proposed bi-linear approximation that requires only measured yield and ultimate strengths but preserves the area under the reference curve. In both cases, true stress–strain values are supplied to the software for plastic analysis. These strategies reduce the average error in plastic rotational stiffness from 46–48% in the existing FEA to about 18% across all specimens, while maintaining good agreement in the elastic range. The results demonstrate that carefully constructed stress–strain approximations, combined with appropriate data formatting in ABAQUS, enable reliable validation of extended end-plate moment connection models and provide a practical basis for future parametric and design studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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17 pages, 32456 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Low-Carbon Reconstruction of Community Public Space from the Perspective of Spatial Justice: A Space Syntax Empirical Study of Beijing’s Baiwanzhuang Community

by Xing Liu and Chaoran Xu

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 235; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010235 - 5 Jan 2026

Viewed by 549

Abstract

In the context of urban stock renewal, coordinating spatial fairness with low-carbon goals remains a critical challenge. Existing planning often leads to spaces that are “nominally compliant but functionally ineffective,” failing to support low-carbon behaviors. To address this, this study adopts a spatial [...] Read more.

In the context of urban stock renewal, coordinating spatial fairness with low-carbon goals remains a critical challenge. Existing planning often leads to spaces that are “nominally compliant but functionally ineffective,” failing to support low-carbon behaviors. To address this, this study adopts a spatial justice framework coupled with space syntax technology to empirically analyze the structural defects of the Beijing Baiwanzhuang Community and their constraints on low-carbon behaviors. We utilized a “Moving Snapshot Observation” method to collect behavioral data and constructed a quantitative regression model to identify the key drivers of elderly gathering (a proxy for low-carbon behavior). The results reveal “significant spatial differentiation and accessibility fractures” within the physical space, where structural imbalances lead to systematic spatial deprivation. Specifically, the multivariate regression analysis (R² = 0.50) indicates that low-carbon behaviors are significantly associated with a “dual-core mechanism”: community-scale spatial integration (NAIN 3600 m) and the density of seating within a short radius (100–200 m). A key finding indicates that the driving role of spatial network accessibility is significantly stronger than facility abundance alone. Based on this, a “Space-Facility-Governance” collaborative reconstruction paradigm is proposed, including using green infrastructure to stitch spatial fractures, precisely configuring low-carbon facilities at high-integration nodes, and establishing inclusive governance mechanisms. This research breaks through the limitation of traditional spatial justice studies that focus on qualitative critique, constructing a “physical spatial structure–low-carbon behavior” quantitative attribution model. It empirically validates that “accessibility justice” is a prerequisite for achieving community low-carbon transitions, providing a quantitative renewal paradigm that balances equity and efficiency for existing communities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Urban Climate Improvement and Spatial Pattern Optimization Under a Multi-Objective Orientation)

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21 pages, 5853 KB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical and Theoretical Study on the Vertical Shear Behavior of a Novel Multi-Ribbed Profiled Steel Sheeting-Concrete Composite Slab in the Construction Stage

by Keyi Hou, Ganping Shu and Yuanyuan Wan

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 234; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010234 - 5 Jan 2026

Viewed by 378

Abstract

Current studies on large-span structural components have largely emphasized flexural performance, whereas multi-ribbed profiled steel sheeting-concrete composite slabs may be prone to inclined-section shear failure in the construction stage, particularly at small shear-span ratios. To ensure that the vertical shear capacity of such [...] Read more.

Current studies on large-span structural components have largely emphasized flexural performance, whereas multi-ribbed profiled steel sheeting-concrete composite slabs may be prone to inclined-section shear failure in the construction stage, particularly at small shear-span ratios. To ensure that the vertical shear capacity of such composite slabs satisfies construction-stage requirements, a numerical model validated against experimental evidence was employed. A systematic parametric study was conducted to clarify the influence of key structural parameters and the shear-span ratio on the vertical shear resistance. On this basis, a calculation method for the vertical shear capacity was proposed based on the strength-equivalence principle and verified against numerical results. The results indicate that the inclined-section shear failure of multi-ribbed profiled steel sheeting-concrete composite slabs develops through four characteristic stages, the shear-span ratio governs the transition of failure mode, and slabs with a rib height of h = 150 mm exhibit a pronounced shear-dominated failure when the shear-span ratio is less than 2. Increasing the rib inclination angle degrades the composite interaction between the profiled steel sheeting and concrete, whereas increasing the sheeting thickness and slab depth enhances the load-bearing capacity and stiffness, and longitudinal reinforcement benefits the internal stress redistribution of concrete. A vertical shear capacity model was formulated for the novel multi-ribbed profiled steel-concrete composite slab and verified against numerical results. The research helps to bridge the gap in studies on the vertical shear performance of multi-ribbed profiled steel-concrete composite slabs and offers design guidance for vertical shear checks of composite slabs in the temporary construction stage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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35 pages, 9896 KB

Open AccessArticle

Static Shear Characteristics of Coarse-Grained Soils Under Different Initial Stress States

by Yi Shi, Yongwei Chen, Wei Qin, Yingdong Feng, Zhenhua Hu and Keke Wang

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 233; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010233 - 5 Jan 2026

Viewed by 296

Abstract

Coarse-grained soil is a commonly used filling material in foundation engineering, and its static shear characteristics are significantly affected by the initial stress state. For coarse-grained soils, clearly defining the drainage conditions and improving the accuracy of pore water pressure measurements are crucial [...] Read more.

Coarse-grained soil is a commonly used filling material in foundation engineering, and its static shear characteristics are significantly affected by the initial stress state. For coarse-grained soils, clearly defining the drainage conditions and improving the accuracy of pore water pressure measurements are crucial in static shear tests. Based on GDS dynamic and static true triaxial equipment, this paper systematically conducts static shear tests on coarse-grained soil under three-dimensional initial isotropic, three-dimensional initial anisotropic, and plane strain states. The effects of initial mean principal stress, initial generalized shear stress, initial intermediate principal stress coefficient, and water content on the stress–strain relationship, strength, modulus, and friction angle of coarse-grained soil are analyzed. The research shows that under the same initial mean principal stress, the peak strength under a plane strain state is the largest, and that under a three-dimensional initial anisotropic state is the smallest. The peak strength of coarse-grained soil with optimal water content is generally higher than that under a saturated state; under a three-dimensional initial anisotropic state, the peak strength decreases with an increase in the initial generalized shear stress and increases with an increase in the initial intermediate principal stress coefficient. The research results provide a theoretical basis for the analysis of mechanical behavior of coarse-grained soil in foundation engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, Geotechnical Engineering and Mining Sciences in Construction—3rd Edition)

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28 pages, 15837 KB

Open AccessArticle

3D Impulse Response Analysis and Acoustic Signature for the Sound Heritage of the Campo Pequeno Bullring in Lisbon, Portugal

by Manuel Martín-Castizo, Sara Girón and Miguel Galindo

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010232 - 5 Jan 2026

Viewed by 354

Abstract

Bullfighting in the bullrings of the Iberian Peninsula, with its most direct antecedent in the Roman amphitheatre, represents an established tradition that has been exported to the Americas. Bullfighting in Portugal shares general aspects with the bullfighting culture in neighbouring Spain. However, in [...] Read more.

Bullfighting in the bullrings of the Iberian Peninsula, with its most direct antecedent in the Roman amphitheatre, represents an established tradition that has been exported to the Americas. Bullfighting in Portugal shares general aspects with the bullfighting culture in neighbouring Spain. However, in Portugal, particular aspects are present: there is a preference for horseback bullfighting (cavaleiros) and forcados (a special type of bullfighting), and the bull is not killed in the ring. In this work, the authors aim to contribute to the acoustic narrative of bullfighting by linking architecture with the sounds of voice, environment, music, and silence that manifest in the emblematic Campo Pequeno bullring in Lisbon, thereby providing valuable information regarding its unknown intangible acoustic heritage. The presence of a mobile roof increases the number of reflections in the bullring, leads to a more linear energy decay, and prevents the acoustic inconveniences of roofless performance venues. The 3D impulse response measurements enable an overall monaural parametric analysis, together with the analysis of the distribution of sound energy in the time–frequency domain of early reflections, to determine the acoustic signature of the venue complemented with the direction of arrival of these early reflections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustics and Well-Being: Towards Healthy Environments)

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34 pages, 4007 KB

Open AccessReview

Symbiotic Intelligence for Sustainable Cities: A Decadal Review of Generative AI, Ethical Algorithms, and Global South Innovations in Urban Green Space Research

by Tianrong Xu, Ainoriza Mohd Aini, Nikmatul Adha Nordin, Qi Shen, Liyan Huang and Wenbo Xu

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 231; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010231 - 5 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 946

Abstract

Urban Green Spaces (UGS) are integral components of the built environment, significantly contributing to its ecological, social, and performance dimensions, including microclimate regulation, occupant well-being, and energy efficiency. This decadal review (2015–2025) systematically analyzes 70 high-impact studies to propose a “Symbiotic Intelligence” framework. [...] Read more.

Urban Green Spaces (UGS) are integral components of the built environment, significantly contributing to its ecological, social, and performance dimensions, including microclimate regulation, occupant well-being, and energy efficiency. This decadal review (2015–2025) systematically analyzes 70 high-impact studies to propose a “Symbiotic Intelligence” framework. This framework integrates Generative AI, ethical algorithms, and innovations from the Global South to revolutionize the planning, design, and management of UGS within building landscapes and urban fabrics. Our analysis reveals that Generative AI can optimize participatory design processes and generate efficient planning schemes, increasing public satisfaction by 41% and achieving fivefold efficiency gains. Metaverse digital twins enable high-fidelity simulation of UGS performance with a mere 3.2% error rate, providing robust tools for building environment analysis. Ethical algorithms, employing fairness metrics and SHAP values, are pivotal for equitable resource distribution, having been shown to reduce UGS allocation disparities in low-income communities by 67%. Meanwhile, innovations from the Global South, such as lightweight federated learning and low-cost sensors, offer scalable solutions for building-environment monitoring under resource constraints, reducing model generalization error by 18% and decreasing data acquisition costs by 90%. However, persistent challenges-including data heterogeneity, algorithmic opacity (with only 23% of studies adopting interpretability tools), and significant data gaps in the Global South (coverage < 15%)-hinder equitable progress. Future research should prioritize developing UGS-climate-building coupling models, decentralized federated frameworks for building management systems, and blockchain-based participatory planning to establish a more robust foundation for sustainable built environments. This study provides an interdisciplinary roadmap for integrating intelligent UGS into building practices, contributing to the advancement of green buildings, occupant-centric design, and the overall sustainability and resilience of our built environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Engineering Structure Inspection, Monitoring Technologies, and Post-Disaster Diagnosis, Maintenance, and Operation)

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33 pages, 17008 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation on the Fresh and Mechanical Properties of Low Carbon 3D Printed Concrete Incorporating Sugarcane Bagasse Ash and Microfibers

by A. H. M. Javed Hossain Talukdar, Muge Belek Fialho Teixeira, Sabrina Fawzia, Tatheer Zahra, Mohammad Eyni Kangavar and Nor Hafizah Ramli Sulong

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010230 - 4 Jan 2026

Viewed by 858

Abstract

The use of recycled materials and locally sourced alternative binders in 3D concrete printing (3DCP) has significant potential to reduce carbon emissions in concrete construction. This study examines the effect of sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA), a byproducts from the sugarcane industry, as a [...] Read more.

The use of recycled materials and locally sourced alternative binders in 3D concrete printing (3DCP) has significant potential to reduce carbon emissions in concrete construction. This study examines the effect of sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA), a byproducts from the sugarcane industry, as a sustainable binder in 3DCP. SCBA was oven-dried at 105 °C, sieved to 250 µm, and used to replace up to 25% of the total binder by weight in a supplementary cementitious material (SCM) blended system. The impact of polypropylene (PP) and steel (ST) microfibres on SCBA-based mixes was also investigated. The fresh properties of the mortar were evaluated using the flow table, Vicat needle, shape retention, buildability, and rheometer tests. The mortar was 3D printed using a small-scale robotic setup with a RAM extruder. Mechanical properties were then tested, including compressive and flexural strengths, and interlayer bonding, along with microstructure analysis. The results showed that increasing the SCBA content led to greater slump and improved flowability, as well as a slower rate of static yield stress development, with up to a 90 percent reduction compared to the control mix. The addition of PP fibres doubled the static yield stress in the mixes containing 20 percent SCBA. The 10 percent SCBA mix achieved the highest mechanical strength, both in compression and flexure, due to its denser microstructure and enhanced pozzolanic reaction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D-Printed Technology in Buildings)

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25 pages, 3479 KB

Open AccessArticle

Structural Performance of Reinforced Concrete Affected by Plastic Materials

by Ramzi Abduallah, Jose Castro, Halil Sezen and Lisa Burris

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010229 - 4 Jan 2026

Viewed by 654

Abstract

This novel study provides new experimental evidence and a detailed comparative analysis of how various types of plastic materials influence concrete performance. Six widely used plastic materials were examined for their impact on the flexural strength of reinforced concrete (RC) beams, as well [...] Read more.

This novel study provides new experimental evidence and a detailed comparative analysis of how various types of plastic materials influence concrete performance. Six widely used plastic materials were examined for their impact on the flexural strength of reinforced concrete (RC) beams, as well as the compressive strength, elastic modulus, and durability of concrete specimens. In the experimental program, 10% of the natural fine aggregate was replaced with particles of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS). A simplified life cycle assessment (LCA) model was included to compare the greenhouse gas emissions (measured as CO₂-e) from managing plastic waste. The new experimental data indicate that, overall, incorporation of plastic waste materials into concrete has modest adverse effects, suggesting the viability of the resulting product as a sustainable material alternative. Flexural tests on RC beams showed that the addition of plastic particles has no adverse effects on flexural behavior under the specific test conditions. Furthermore, durability assessments using ultrasonic pulse velocity and electrical resistivity tests confirmed that plastic-modified concrete performs comparably to conventional mixes. LCA revealed that, with strategic improvements in recycling technology and logistics, using plastic waste in concrete can become an environmentally friendly option, helping to reduce the carbon footprint. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Challenges of and Research Trends in the Durability, Corrosion, and Cracking of Reinforced Concrete)

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27 pages, 1762 KB

Open AccessArticle

Governing the Fab Lab Commons: An Ostrom-Inspired Framework for Sustainable University Shared Spaces

by Eunki Kang and Yoon-jeong Shin

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 228; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010228 - 4 Jan 2026

Viewed by 536

Abstract

The Fourth Industrial Revolution has reshaped shared spaces in higher education, with manufacturing labs (Fab Labs) emerging as vital hubs for collaboration. However, a systematic framework for ensuring their long-term sustainability as shared resources is lacking. This study addresses this gap by conceptualizing [...] Read more.

The Fourth Industrial Revolution has reshaped shared spaces in higher education, with manufacturing labs (Fab Labs) emerging as vital hubs for collaboration. However, a systematic framework for ensuring their long-term sustainability as shared resources is lacking. This study addresses this gap by conceptualizing the university Fab Lab as a ‘commons’ and applying Elinor Ostrom’s Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework. We propose a new analytical framework for sustainable space sharing, reconstructed from Ostrom’s principles into three university policy domains: Resource Policy (Rp), Actor/User Policy (Ap), and Community/Governance Policy (C/Gp). To validate this framework, we conduct a case study of the ‘Idea Factory’ at Seoul National University, analyzing its operational policies in conjunction with global standards like the Fab Charter. The proposed framework provides practical guidance for establishing spatial policies and architectural plans that emphasize autonomy, adaptability, and polycentric governance. It offers a new paradigm for sustainability in university commons by integrating bottom-up community approaches with robust institutional design, providing a theoretical foundation for implementing effective sharing schemes in rapidly evolving educational environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Promoting the Social Sustainability of Urban Neighbourhoods)

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19 pages, 5926 KB

Open AccessArticle

Full-Scale Collision Behavior of a Polyurea-Coated RC Intrusion Protection Wall for High-Speed Train Derailment

by Luong Ngoc Nguyen, Dong Hwi Im, Kwang Soo Youm, Jung Joong Kim and Nam Hyoung Lim

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 227; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010227 - 4 Jan 2026

Viewed by 511

Abstract

High-speed train derailments can cause severe vehicle collisions with rail bridges and adjacent infrastructure; however, full-scale evidence for the collision response of trackside intrusion-protection walls and for material measures that limit concrete fragmentation remains scarce. This study addresses this safety-driven knowledge gap by [...] Read more.

High-speed train derailments can cause severe vehicle collisions with rail bridges and adjacent infrastructure; however, full-scale evidence for the collision response of trackside intrusion-protection walls and for material measures that limit concrete fragmentation remains scarce. This study addresses this safety-driven knowledge gap by reporting a full-scale collision test of a polyurea-coated reinforced concrete (RC) wall and by clarifying its governing response mechanisms and coating benefits. The inverted T-shaped RC wall was post-anchored to an existing deck and spray-coated with approximately 5 mm polyurea on the collision face and across the wall-footing junction. A 17.68 t container wagon was propelled to 34.59 km/h to reproduce the normal kinetic energy of a representative 68 t KTX car derailing at 300 km/h with a 3° collision angle. High-speed video tracking and post-test mapping captured displacements, rotations, and damage. The wall contained the container wagon without climb-over and without severe local crushing at the collision face; the response was dominated by stable wall-footing rocking, with a peak top displacement of 0.571 m, peak rotation of 19.9°, and residual inclination of approximately 15–17°. The peak collision-force estimate was approximately 1.17 MN, and most input energy (approximately 647–816 kJ) was dissipated through inelastic rocking and sliding while the anchors remained intact. The polyurea layer restrained spalling and fragment release and promoted a more global, repairable rocking-dominated damage state. These results provide rare full-scale benchmarks and mechanistic insight to support performance-based design and retrofit of derailment intrusion-protection walls for improved rail-bridge safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Performances of Structural Concrete: Data-Driven Analysis Using AI, Numerical and Experimental Investigation)

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24 pages, 17632 KB

Open AccessArticle

Renovation Design of an Urban Historic District Based on Space Syntax: A Case Study of the Qianmen Area in Beijing

by Wen Zhang, Pan Wang, Yuhan Chen, Qiang Sheng, Wei Zhang, Jie Zheng and Shisheng Chen

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 226; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010226 - 4 Jan 2026

Viewed by 692

Abstract

Against the background of rapid global urbanization, the renewal and renovation of historic districts have become an increasingly important concern. As a city with a long and rich history, Beijing contains numerous historic districts that are in urgent need of systematic renewal and [...] Read more.

Against the background of rapid global urbanization, the renewal and renovation of historic districts have become an increasingly important concern. As a city with a long and rich history, Beijing contains numerous historic districts that are in urgent need of systematic renewal and renovation. This study proposes a functional enhancement and renovation design methodology for urban historic districts based on space syntax theory and analytical methods, applying it to the Qianmen Historic District in Beijing. Through traffic flow and business format analysis, the research examines traffic patterns and business format distribution characteristics in the Qianmen area and ultimately guides the design based on these findings. Research indicates that restrooms and attractions in Beijing’s Qianmen historic district exhibit dispersed space distribution, broad service coverage, high metric step depth (447 m and 436 m, respectively), and low topological connectivity. In contrast, hotels and restaurants feature smaller service areas, lower metric step depth (395 m and 297 m, respectively), and higher topological connectivity. Based on these findings, this study proposes targeted design recommendations for Qianmen’s street renovations based on traffic flow analysis results. Considering the need for vehicle parking and pedestrian rest demands in urban functional renewal, rest seats and shared charging piles are set up on the streets with big pedestrian flow to meet the needs of pedestrians. Moreover, cycling routes are designed to connect big-traffic-flow streets with small-traffic-flow ones. These renewal measures aim to enhance the overall vitality of the Qianmen district. The renovation approach and methodology proposed in this study can serve as a reference for future updates and renovations of historic districts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Cities and Their Downtowns: Urban Studies and Planning)

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26 pages, 5348 KB

Open AccessArticle

Hybrid Explainable Machine Learning Models with Metaheuristic Optimization for Performance Prediction of Self-Compacting Concrete

by Jing Zhang, Zhenlin Wang, Sifan Shen, Shiyu Sheng, Haijie He and Chuang He

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 225; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010225 - 4 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 535

Abstract

Accurate prediction of the mechanical and rheological properties of self-compacting concrete (SCC) is critical for mixture design and engineering decision-making; however, conventional empirical approaches often struggle to capture the coupled nonlinear relationships among mixture variables. To address this challenge, this study develops an [...] Read more.

Accurate prediction of the mechanical and rheological properties of self-compacting concrete (SCC) is critical for mixture design and engineering decision-making; however, conventional empirical approaches often struggle to capture the coupled nonlinear relationships among mixture variables. To address this challenge, this study develops an integrated and interpretable hybrid machine learning (ML) framework by coupling three ML models (RF, XGBoost, and SVR) with five metaheuristic optimizers (SSA, PSO, GWO, GA, and WOA), and by incorporating SHAP and partial dependence (PDP) analyses for explainability. Two SCC datasets with nine mixture parameters are used to predict 28-day compressive strength (CS) and slump flow (SF). The results show that SSA provides the most stable hyperparameter optimization, and the best-performing SSA–RF model achieves test R² values of 0.967 for CS and 0.958 for SF, with RMSE values of 2.295 and 23.068, respectively. Feature importance analysis indicates that the top five variables contribute more than 80% of the predictive information for both targets. Using only these dominant features, a simplified SSA–RF model reduces computation time from 7.3 s to 5.9 s and from 9.7 s to 6.1 s for the two datasets, respectively, while maintaining engineering-level prediction accuracy, and the SHAP and PDP analyses provide transparent feature-level explanations and verify that the learned relationships are physically consistent with SCC mixture-design principles, thereby increasing the reliability and practical applicability of the proposed framework. Overall, the proposed framework delivers accurate prediction, transparent interpretation, and practical guidance for SCC mixture optimization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Cementitious Materials: Integrating Nanotechnology, Sustainability, and Intelligent Design)

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22 pages, 1743 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation of Red Mud-Electrolytic Manganese Residue Paste: Properties and Environmental Impact

by Zhongping Chen, Yongkang Li, Yuefu Zhou, Yuansheng Peng and Yuehua Duan

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 224; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010224 - 4 Jan 2026

Viewed by 476

Abstract

Red mud (RM) and electrolytic manganese residue (EMR) possess inherently complementary acid–base characteristics, and their synergistic utilization offers a promising approach to simultaneously enhance mechanical performance and mitigate environmental risks. However, the environmental behavior of RM-EMR composites, particularly in terms of pH buffering, [...] Read more.

Red mud (RM) and electrolytic manganese residue (EMR) possess inherently complementary acid–base characteristics, and their synergistic utilization offers a promising approach to simultaneously enhance mechanical performance and mitigate environmental risks. However, the environmental behavior of RM-EMR composites, particularly in terms of pH buffering, ammonium nitrogen (NH₄⁺-N) control, and heavy metal mobility, remains inadequately understood. In this study, a composite cementitious paste was developed using RM and EMR, and the effects of the RM-to-EMR ratio (1: 3, 2: 3, 1: 1, and 3: 2), alkali activator dosage (30%, 40%, 50% and 60% by weight), and curing time (3 day, 7 day, 14 day, and 28 day) under standard curing conditions on unconfined compressive strength (UCS) were systematically evaluated. Leaching tests were conducted to assess pH evolution, NH₄⁺-N release, and heavy metal migration. The results showed that the optimal 28-day UCS of 35 MPa was achieved with an RM-to-EMR mass ratio of 2:3 and an activator dosage of 60%. EMR contributed to NH₄⁺-N leaching concentrations as high as 302 mg/L; however, under alkaline conditions (pH > 11), over 50% of the block samples met regulatory limits due to the transformation of NH₄⁺ into gaseous NH₃. Furthermore, Mn and Cd were effectively immobilized. In contrast, Al and Se exhibited elevated leaching, with Al showing particularly high concentrations under water leaching conditions. These results underscore the importance of raw material pretreatment and system optimization. Overall, this study provides new insights into the environmental behavior and safe resource utilization of RM and EMR in cementitious systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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18 pages, 3801 KB

Open AccessTechnical Note

Sedimaging-Based Analysis of Granular Soil Compressibility for Building Foundation Design and Earth–Rock Dam Infrastructure

by Tengteng Cao, Shuangping Li, Zhaogen Hu, Bin Zhang, Junxing Zheng, Zuqiang Liu, Xin Xu and Han Tang

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010223 - 4 Jan 2026

Viewed by 475

Abstract

This technical note presents a quantitative image-based framework for evaluating the packing and compressibility of granular soils, specifically applied to building foundation design in civil infrastructure projects. The Sedimaging system replicates hydraulic sedimentation in a controlled column, equipped with a high-resolution camera, to [...] Read more.

This technical note presents a quantitative image-based framework for evaluating the packing and compressibility of granular soils, specifically applied to building foundation design in civil infrastructure projects. The Sedimaging system replicates hydraulic sedimentation in a controlled column, equipped with a high-resolution camera, to visualize particle orientation after deposition. Grayscale images of the settled bed are analyzed using Haar Wavelet Transform (HWT) decomposition to quantify directional intensity gradients. A new descriptor, termed the sediment index (B), is defined as the ratio of vertical to horizontal wavelet energy at the dominant scale, representing the preferential alignment and anisotropy of particles during sedimentation. Experimental investigations were conducted on fifteen granular materials that include natural sands, tailings, glass beads and rice grains with different shapes. The results demonstrate strong correlations between B and both microscopic shape ratios (d₁/d₂ and d₁/d₃) and macroscopic properties. Linear relationships predict the limiting void ratios (e_max, e_min) with mean absolute differences of 0.04 and 0.03, respectively. A power-law function relates B to the compression index (C_c) with an average deviation of 0.02. These findings confirm that the sediment index effectively captures the morphological influence of particle shape on soil packing and compressibility. Compared with conventional physical testing, the Sedimaging-based approach offers a rapid, non-destructive, and high-throughput solution for estimating soil packing and compressibility of cohesionless, sand-sized granular soils directly from post-settlement imagery, making it particularly valuable for preliminary site assessments, geotechnical screening, and intelligent monitoring of granular materials in building foundation design and other infrastructure applications, such as earth–rock dams. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Resilient Civil Infrastructure, 2nd Edition)

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38 pages, 7206 KB

Open AccessArticle

Children’s Well-Being of Physical Activity Space Design in Primary School Campus from the Perspective of Basic Psychological Needs

by Qi Song, Yixin Liu, Yihao Zhang, Min Huang, Bingjie Sun and Yuting Li

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010222 - 4 Jan 2026

Viewed by 950

Abstract

The issue of children’s mental health is becoming increasingly prominent worldwide. Research indicates that insufficient physical activity constitutes a significant risk factor for various health issues. As primary school campuses serve as the primary setting for children’s physical activities, their spatial design currently [...] Read more.

The issue of children’s mental health is becoming increasingly prominent worldwide. Research indicates that insufficient physical activity constitutes a significant risk factor for various health issues. As primary school campuses serve as the primary setting for children’s physical activities, their spatial design currently fails to adequately support children’s psychological needs, thereby hindering improvements in mental well-being. This study, grounded in the theory of basic psychological needs, employs a combined approach of quantitative bibliometric analysis and qualitative content analysis to systematically investigate the relationship between children’s psychological needs and the design of physical activity spaces within school environments. The study identified six major research clusters: children’s health, self-determination theory, evaluation, physical education, user-centred design, and physical health. These reveal the multidimensional relationship between spatial design and children’s well-being. The key findings suggest that optimising facility diversity, designing progressively challenging activity zones, and implementing function-oriented colour coding can fulfil children’s fundamental psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. These measures significantly enhance their mental well-being and overall happiness. This study extends the application of basic psychological needs theory to the field of campus spatial design, providing practical guidance for designers, educators, and policymakers. It aims to collectively advance the continuous optimisation of school sports facilities, thereby creating more favourable conditions for children’s healthy development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Art and Design for Healing and Wellness in the Built Environment: 2nd Edition)

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20 pages, 2487 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of BIM Maturity in Civil Engineering Education: A Diagnostic Study Applied to the Polytechnic School of the University of Pernambuco in the Brazilian Context

by Vinícius Francis Braga de Azevedo, Eliane Maria Gorga Lago, Cristiana Maria Sobral Griz, Alexandre Duarte Gusmão and Bianca M. Vasconcelos

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 221; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010221 - 4 Jan 2026

Viewed by 581

Abstract

Building Information Modeling (BIM) has become a key methodology for transforming the construction sector, yet its integration into higher education remains a global challenge. In Brazil, despite national policies promoting BIM adoption, most universities still face cultural, technological, and pedagogical barriers to curricular [...] Read more.

Building Information Modeling (BIM) has become a key methodology for transforming the construction sector, yet its integration into higher education remains a global challenge. In Brazil, despite national policies promoting BIM adoption, most universities still face cultural, technological, and pedagogical barriers to curricular implementation. This study aims to assess and characterize the BIM maturity level of the Civil Engineering program at the Polytechnic School of the University of Pernambuco (POLI/UPE), applying the BIM Maturity Matrix for Higher Education Institutions (m²BIM-HEI). Self-assessment questionnaires were administered to program coordination, faculty members, the Structuring Teaching Nucleus, and the Information Technology Division. The results show an intermediate BIM maturity level (56.5%), with notable progress in research and student training but limitations in faculty qualification, technological infrastructure, and institutional vision. The originality of this research lies in its contextualized diagnostic approach, applying a maturity model to a public Brazilian university and revealing specific challenges of BIM adoption in developing contexts. The findings highlight the need for structured institutional policies, faculty development programs, and curricular integration strategies, offering insights that can guide similar initiatives in Latin American higher education. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)

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24 pages, 805 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Economic Benefit Evaluation of Elevator Retrofitting: An Empirical Analysis of Second-Hand Housing Price Premiums in Hangzhou’s Older Residential Compounds

by Xinjun Dai, Xiaofen Yu, Lindong Ma and Pengju Zheng

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010220 - 4 Jan 2026

Viewed by 864

Abstract

Against the backdrop of urban renewal and population ageing in China, elevator retrofitting in older residential compounds has emerged as a critical yet contentious issue, primarily due to uneven cost-sharing and perceived inequities in the distribution of benefits. This study employs a combined [...] Read more.

Against the backdrop of urban renewal and population ageing in China, elevator retrofitting in older residential compounds has emerged as a critical yet contentious issue, primarily due to uneven cost-sharing and perceived inequities in the distribution of benefits. This study employs a combined empirical framework integrating Difference-in-Differences (DID) and cost–benefit analysis to systematically evaluate the economic impacts of elevator installation in older neighbourhoods of Hangzhou. Using transaction data from 879 housing units across 18 residential compounds between 2018 and 2020, along with actual project cost records, we quantify the premium effects and assess economic feasibility. The results show that elevator retrofitting leads to an overall 5.53% increase in housing prices, with significant vertical differentiation: upper-floor units appreciate by 8.10%, middle-floor units by 4.58%, and lower-floor units by 1.59%. Further analysis confirms that the aggregate increase in property value fully covers installation costs, long-term maintenance, and reasonable compensation for lower-floor residents, thereby achieving a Pareto improvement. The study establishes a floor-gradient linkage mechanism between value uplift and cost-sharing, providing a quantifiable basis for policy design and community negotiation. These findings challenge the prevailing zero-sum view of elevator retrofitting while offering a replicable model for urban renewal that equitably balances stakeholder benefits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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38 pages, 18584 KB

Open AccessArticle

Emerging Trends in Structural Mechanics Education: A Bibliometric Approach from the Perspective of Colombian Professors

by Jesús D. Villalba-Morales, Sandra Jerez, Ricardo Parra, Juan C. Obando, Andrés Guzmán, José M. Benjumea, Orlando Arroyo and Orlando Cundumi

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010219 - 4 Jan 2026

Viewed by 919

Abstract

Recent developments in higher education have transformed teaching–learning processes across disciplines, including structural mechanics in civil engineering programs. However, reports on innovative teaching practices in structural engineering are scattered, hindering their application in other contexts. This study consolidates and analyzes global research trends [...] Read more.

Recent developments in higher education have transformed teaching–learning processes across disciplines, including structural mechanics in civil engineering programs. However, reports on innovative teaching practices in structural engineering are scattered, hindering their application in other contexts. This study consolidates and analyzes global research trends in structural mechanics education (from 2014 to 2023), complemented by insights obtained from surveys applied to students, instructors, and senior structural engineers in Colombia. The sample literature comprises 150 Scopus-indexed English articles analyzed with Bibliometrix. Eight guiding questions serve to characterize the literature, identify predominant pedagogical strategies, and outline future research directions. Results reveal limited collaboration networks, inconsistent keyword usage, and a strong concentration of U.S.-based authors and institutions. Most papers appear in engineering education journals, and the recurrent topics (active learning strategies, digital and virtual resources, and assessment methods) confirm the prevalence of experiential, student-centered approaches. Based on the findings, eight emerging areas should guide future research: sustainability, educational research, non-disciplinary competencies, digital resources, artificial intelligence, innovation, disciplinary competencies, and digital competencies. Also, it is recommended that engineering faculties focus efforts on clarifying competency frameworks, strengthening pedagogical and faculty development, investing in educational technologies and laboratory infrastructure, fostering collaborative networks, and enhancing the visibility of structural mechanics education research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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40 pages, 2832 KB

Open AccessArticle

Emerging Resident Concerns as Signals of a Paradigm Shift in the Spatial Infrastructure for Integrated Community Care: Focusing on Yeonpyeong Island, a Medically Isolated Declining Region of Korea

by Yeun Sook Lee, Eun Jung Jun and Jae Hyun Park

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 218; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010218 - 3 Jan 2026

Viewed by 629

Abstract

Across East Asia, rapid population aging and regional decline threaten the sustainability of rural and island communities. Yeonpyeong Island provides a critical context for examining how spatial infrastructure shapes older residents’ daily challenges. The aim of this study is to identify how older [...] Read more.

Across East Asia, rapid population aging and regional decline threaten the sustainability of rural and island communities. Yeonpyeong Island provides a critical context for examining how spatial infrastructure shapes older residents’ daily challenges. The aim of this study is to identify how older adults evaluate their housing and community environments and to determine whether these perceptions signal a transition toward more integrated and community-based care settings. Using a primary quantitative survey of 102 older residents, supplemented by contextual input from a local representative, the study analyzes how health decline, mobility constraints, and housing obsolescence interact with aspirations for service-integrated and socially connected living. Composite scores for perceived home modification needs remained consistently in the mid-to-upper range (approximately 3.5–4.0 on a 5-point scale). Acceptance of alternative, cohousing-type community housing also remained above the midpoint (approximately 3.5–4.1), reflecting an unusually high level of openness in a setting traditionally characterized by low receptivity to residential change and limited local housing alternatives. Safety risks, poor accessibility, and inadequate facilities function as push factors, while preferences for shared programs, proximity-based reassurance, and integrated hubs operate as pull factors, together signaling readiness for more supportive communal living. By integrating Push–Pull Theory with Environmental Press and Life-Space perspectives, the study contributes theoretically by extending these frameworks to the community scale and empirically by providing resident-level evidence from an under-researched island context. The findings highlight how older adults act as evaluators of their environments, articulating practical signals for spatial restructuring and integrated care planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

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28 pages, 3100 KB

Open AccessArticle

Linking Health, Comfort and Indoor Environmental Quality in Classrooms with Mechanical Ventilation or Window Airing: A Controlled Observational Study

by Susanna Bordin, Renate Weisböck-Erdheim, Sebastian Hummel, Barbara Fixl, Jonathan Griener, Arno Dentel and Arnulf Josef Hartl

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010217 - 3 Jan 2026

Viewed by 724

Abstract

Effective classroom ventilation is essential for indoor environmental quality (IEQ), comfort and health of schoolchildren, who spend substantial time indoors. This controlled observational study compared manual window airing (WA) with decentralized mechanical ventilation (DV) in six classrooms of two elementary schools during the [...] Read more.

Effective classroom ventilation is essential for indoor environmental quality (IEQ), comfort and health of schoolchildren, who spend substantial time indoors. This controlled observational study compared manual window airing (WA) with decentralized mechanical ventilation (DV) in six classrooms of two elementary schools during the winter infection period. Symptoms of upper respiratory tract infections, salivary biomarkers, well-being, perceived comfort, and classroom-level IEQ were assessed through questionnaires, saliva samples and long-term monitoring. Ninety-eight schoolchildren participated (64 WA, 34 DV). Symptom-based outcomes of the WURSS-K questionnaire showed consistently lower illness burden in group DV, with several parameters reaching statistical significance and an absolute risk reduction of 7.8%. Salivary immunoglobulin A (sIgA) concentrations were also significantly lower in group DV (approximately 39–59%, p ≤ 0.01). Sensitivity analyses showed positive associations of CO₂ and PM_2.5 with sIgA and indicated that PM_2.5 exposure accounted for group differences. Comfort perceptions mirrored measured IEQ: DV classrooms exhibited warmer, more stable thermal conditions, lower CO₂ and PM_2.5, and slightly better thermal and draught-related impressions. Overall, decentralized mechanical ventilation supported favorable IEQ and comfort and may influence mucosal immune activity through reduced particulate exposure, complementing the observed reduction in symptom burden. A multidimensional approach integrating medical outcomes with continuous IEQ monitoring proved valuable and should be expanded in larger, balanced cohort studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Thermal Environment: Improving Indoor Comfort by Optimizing Ventilation Systems)

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34 pages, 10626 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Performance of Joints with Bearing Plates in Concrete-Filled Steel Tubular Arch-Supporting Column-Prestressed Steel Reinforced Concrete Beam Structures: Numerical Simulation and Design Methods

by Chongyang Li, Xianggang Su, Zhiliang Zuo, Lehua Huang and Yuezhou Zhou

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010216 - 3 Jan 2026

Viewed by 430

Abstract

Research on the configuration and mechanical performance of arch-column-tie beam joints, which combine features of arch-tie beam joints and tubular joints, remains limited, particularly for long-span structures subjected to heavy loads at high building stories. This study focuses on a joint in an [...] Read more.

Research on the configuration and mechanical performance of arch-column-tie beam joints, which combine features of arch-tie beam joints and tubular joints, remains limited, particularly for long-span structures subjected to heavy loads at high building stories. This study focuses on a joint in an engineering structure comprising a circular arch beam, a square-section inclined column, and a tie beam, where both the arch and the inclined column are concrete-filled steel tube (CFST) members. A novel joint configuration was proposed, then a refined finite element model was established. The joint’s mechanical mechanism and failure mode under axial compression in the arch beam were investigated, considering two conditions: the presence of prestressed high-strength rods and the failure of the rods. Subsequently, a parametric study was conducted to investigate the influence of variations in the web thickness of the tie beam, the steel tube wall thickness of the arched beam, the steel tube wall thickness of the supporting inclined column, and the strength grades of steel and concrete on the bearing capacity behavior and failure modes. Numerical simulation results indicate that the joint remains elastic under the design load for both conditions, meeting the design requirements. The joint reaches its ultimate capacity when extensive yielding occurs in the tie beam along the junction region with the circular arch beam, as well as in the steel tube of the arch beam. At this stage, the steel plates and concrete within the joint zone remain elastic, ensuring reliable load transfer. The maximum computed load of the model with prestressed rods was 2.28 times the design load. The absence of prestressed rods could lead to a significant increase in the high-stress area within the web of the tie beam, decreasing the joint’s stiffness by 12.4% at yielding, but have a limited effect on its maximum bearing capacity. Gradually increasing the wall thickness of the arch beam’s steel tube shifts the failure mode from arch-beam-dominated yielding to tie-beam-dominated yielding along the junction region. Increasing the steel strength grade is more efficient in enhancing the bearing capacity than increasing the concrete strength grade. Finally, a design methodology for the joint zone was established based on three aspects: local stress transfer at the bottom of the arch beam, force equilibrium between the arch beam and the tie beam, and the biaxial compression state of the concrete in the joint zone. Furthermore, the construction process and mechanical analysis methods for various construction stages were proposed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Steel and Composite Structures)

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22 pages, 2606 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fire-Resistant Steel Structures: Optimization Mathematical Model with Minimum Predicted Cost of Fire Protection Means

by Marina Gravit, Anton Radaev, Nikita Shcheglov, Natalia Konstantinova and Alla Tsepova

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010215 - 2 Jan 2026

Viewed by 870

Abstract

Steel structures quickly lose stability during a fire, which is why fire protection measures are used to increase their fire resistance limits. Structural fire protection in the form of boards or covers can achieve structural stability values ranging from 30 to 240 min [...] Read more.

Steel structures quickly lose stability during a fire, which is why fire protection measures are used to increase their fire resistance limits. Structural fire protection in the form of boards or covers can achieve structural stability values ranging from 30 to 240 min under various fire conditions. Structural fire protection has certain advantages—it does not change its geometry during a fire, its behavior is predictable during testing (unlike intumescent fire protection), it has broad climatic applicability, and it can achieve high fire resistance limits. This article presents a mathematical model that calculates the minimum cost of structural fire protection while ensuring that the unexposed side of a steel column does not exceed 500 °C and achieves 180 min of standard fire resistance. Optimal values were extracted using genetic algorithms in the MS Excel environment and the “Solver” tool. The model was tested on a sample of 39 structural materials, such as cement boards, covers, and enclosures. The calculated coefficient of determination (R²) for the predictive model of the main component was 0.948. The predicted material cost was 6.83 $/m². This study’s results can be used for preliminary cost estimation of fire protection treatments for steel structures in large design and operating companies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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27 pages, 2843 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Construction Duration Optimization of High-Rise Residential Buildings Based on an Integrated Platform

by Shuqiang Wang, Wenjing Dong and Chenxi Hu

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010214 - 2 Jan 2026

Viewed by 876

Abstract

The integrated platform provides a safe operating environment for high-rise residential construction and enables the simultaneous advancement of main structural works and facade operations. However, the construction workflow based on an integrated platform is highly complex, with tightly interlinked processes, making construction duration [...] Read more.

The integrated platform provides a safe operating environment for high-rise residential construction and enables the simultaneous advancement of main structural works and facade operations. However, the construction workflow based on an integrated platform is highly complex, with tightly interlinked processes, making construction duration optimization an urgent issue. Focusing on the construction characteristics of the integrated platform for facade operations and the coordinated execution of structural and facade works, this study investigates the problem of construction duration optimization. With the objective of minimizing the overall construction period, the logical relationships among various processes are systematically sorted out, and a mathematical optimization model is established that considers precedence constraints, overlapping relationships, and labor resource conditions. By introducing a genetic algorithm, the optimal construction scheme under the shortest possible duration is obtained. An empirical analysis based on an actual engineering project demonstrates that the construction cycle of a standard floor was shortened from the original 6 days to 5 days, effectively reducing technical interruptions on site and lowering labor resource demand by 10–15%. This improvement enhances lean construction performance at the project level. The research results provide theoretical support and methodological reference for construction duration optimization using integrated construction equipment and hold significant engineering value and practical significance for promoting the digitalization, systematization, and efficiency of building construction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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