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Volume 16
Issue 7
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Buildings, Volume 16, Issue 7 (April-1 2026) – 192 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Can nature substitutes replace the experience of real greenery indoors? This study investigates how different representations of nature are processed in the brain using electroencephalography (EEG). Participants viewed indoor scenes featuring real greenery, green color, and shadows of greenery. The results reveal significantly greater right-frontal engagement in the Natural Greenery condition, while simplified visual substitutes fail to elicit a comparable neural response. Despite similar design intentions, not all forms of greenery are processed equally. These findings affirm the critical role of visual access to natural greenery in indoor environments and contribute to the development of evidence-based biophilic design strategies that support user experience and well-being. View this paper
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19 pages, 10912 KB  
Article
Seismic Response of Liquefiable Marine Sand Treated by Microbially Induced Desaturation Through Shaking Table Tests
by Yubing Peng, Yongchang Yang, Shuai Zhang, Jun Hu, Jixun Ren and Xiang Xue
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1463; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071463 - 7 Apr 2026
Abstract
Microbially induced desaturation and precipitation (MIDP) is a promising eco-friendly technique for liquefaction mitigation. However, existing studies have primarily focused on silica sands under element-scale cyclic loading, and the dynamic response of MIDP-treated marine sand under seismic excitation remains poorly understood. In this [...] Read more.
Microbially induced desaturation and precipitation (MIDP) is a promising eco-friendly technique for liquefaction mitigation. However, existing studies have primarily focused on silica sands under element-scale cyclic loading, and the dynamic response of MIDP-treated marine sand under seismic excitation remains poorly understood. In this study, the denitrifying bacterium Pseudomonas stutzeri was used to generate nitrogen gas in situ within typical liquefiable marine sand from the Haikou Jiangdong New Area, producing treated specimens with degrees of saturation ranging from approximately 99% to 80%. Shaking table tests were performed under Wenchuan earthquake motions with peak ground accelerations of 0.10–0.20 g. The results show that reducing the degree of saturation by approximately 18.9% decreases surface settlement by 77.6%, while the peak pore water pressure and lateral displacement are reduced by 21% and 15%, respectively. The acceleration response of the treated specimens also exhibits a notable attenuation effect. These findings provide preliminary comparative experimental evidence for the application of MIDP in the eco-friendly liquefaction mitigation of coastal marine sand foundations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Infrastructure Engineering: Intelligent Construction, Structural Health Monitoring and Sustainable Materials)
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22 pages, 1482 KB  
Article
Trustworthy AI in Sustainable Building Projects: Prioritizing Data Quality for Risk Management Decisions
by Teoh Shu Jou, Zafira Nadia Maaz, Mahanim Hanid, Chin Hon Choong, Shamsulhadi Bandi, Chai Chang Saar, Eeydzah Aminudin and Nur Fadilah Darmansah
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1462; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071462 - 7 Apr 2026
Abstract
Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly being adopted for decision support in sustainable building risk management, yet the trustworthiness of AI-supported sustainability risk decisions depends as much on data quality as on analytical capability. Poor data conditions can amplify sustainability risks by producing unreliable [...] Read more.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly being adopted for decision support in sustainable building risk management, yet the trustworthiness of AI-supported sustainability risk decisions depends as much on data quality as on analytical capability. Poor data conditions can amplify sustainability risks by producing unreliable decision support, yet existing studies provide limited insights into which data quality dimensions should be prioritized to enable trustworthy AI outcomes. This study identifies and prioritizes the critical data quality dimensions for trustworthy AI-supported decisions in sustainable building risk management. A questionnaire survey was conducted of accredited sustainable building professionals and their expert judgements were analyzed through an Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). The findings reveal that system-dependent dimensions, particularly traceability and interoperability, are prioritized over intrinsic dimensions like accuracy and consistency. The findings suggest that trustworthy AI-supported sustainability decisions depend strongly on a verifiable data provenance, cross-system integration and interpretable outputs rather than data correctness alone. This study reframes data quality from a general prerequisite to a prioritized, context-sensitive construct underpinning trustworthy AI applications, extending data-driven decision theory in the sustainable building domain. Ultimately, a phased data governance approach is recommended to prioritize traceability and interoperability as the foundational conditions for construction organizations implementing trustworthy AI in sustainable building risk management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence (AI) for Construction Risk Management)
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30 pages, 6283 KB  
Article
Modularity-Driven Keyword Co-Occurrence Network for Mining Statistical Associations in Construction Safety Accidents
by Shu Liu, Weidong Yan, Jian Ma, Guoqi Liu and Rui Zhang
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1461; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071461 - 7 Apr 2026
Abstract
To address the limitations of traditional construction safety accident analysis, which relies on manually defined causal relationships, requires extensive data annotation, and struggles to identify latent risks from Chinese unstructured texts, this study proposes an unsupervised and data-driven framework, termed CESA-Miner, for mining [...] Read more.
To address the limitations of traditional construction safety accident analysis, which relies on manually defined causal relationships, requires extensive data annotation, and struggles to identify latent risks from Chinese unstructured texts, this study proposes an unsupervised and data-driven framework, termed CESA-Miner, for mining statistical association patterns among construction safety accidents. The proposed framework adopts a modularity-driven keyword optimization strategy to automatically identify a stable set of risk-related features. Based on this, an accident risk weighted co-occurrence network is constructed, where statistical associations are represented through keyword co-occurrence patterns and network community structures. Community detection algorithms are then applied to identify accident clusters and their underlying relationships. Using a dataset of 1368 official construction accident reports, the results show that the network modularity increases from 0.173 to 0.683, indicating significantly improved structural quality and community separability. In the absence of explicit ground truth, structural quality is evaluated using network modularity as a proxy metric. Compared with conventional clustering-based and embedding-based approaches, the proposed method yields a more structurally distinct network community organization and offers a complementary structure-aware perspective for characterizing accident relationships. The framework enables large-scale intelligent analysis of accident texts without requiring manual annotation, providing data-driven support for latent risk identification and statistical pattern analysis in construction safety. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue AI in Construction: Automation, Optimization, and Safety)
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35 pages, 2399 KB  
Article
Modeling Early Warning Evaluation of Greenwashing Behavior in Building Materials Enterprises Under Negative Public Opinion
by Xingwei Li, Sijing Liu, Bei Peng and Congshan Tian
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1460; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071460 - 7 Apr 2026
Abstract
Existing studies on greenwashing have primarily focused on post-incident supervision, with limited attention given to proactive mechanisms. This study aims to develop an early warning evaluation model for greenwashing behavior in building materials enterprises exposed to negative public opinion. The main findings are [...] Read more.
Existing studies on greenwashing have primarily focused on post-incident supervision, with limited attention given to proactive mechanisms. This study aims to develop an early warning evaluation model for greenwashing behavior in building materials enterprises exposed to negative public opinion. The main findings are as follows: (1) Drawing on actor network theory, gray system theory, the analytic network process, and gray fuzzy comprehensive evaluation, this study constructs an early warning evaluation model for greenwashing behavior in building materials enterprises. This model comprises 5 first-level dimensions and 20 s-level indicators, integrating key stakeholders (i.e., government, negative public opinion, media, the public, and enterprise) and is validated through case analysis. (2) Government dimension: Environmental regulation intensity emerges as the most critical indicator. (3) Negative public opinion dimension: Attention is the most critical indicator. (4) Media dimension: Media visibility ranks as the most critical indicator. (5) Public dimension: Public sentiment is the most influential indicator. (6) Enterprise dimension: The environmental performance level is the most critical indicator. This study offers both theoretical and practical foundations for the early warning, monitoring, and governance of enterprise greenwashing, contributing to the advancement of sustainable development and transparent environmental communication in the building materials industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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28 pages, 9029 KB  
Article
Compressive Strength of Alkali-Activated Recycled Aggregate Concrete Incorporating Nano CNTs/GO After Exposure to Elevated Temperatures
by Chunyang Liu, Yunlong Wang, Yali Gu and Ya Ge
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1459; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071459 - 7 Apr 2026
Abstract
To investigate the effects of incorporating nanomaterials—carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene oxide (GO)—on the axial compressive mechanical properties of alkali-activated recycled aggregate concrete (AARAC) after high-temperature exposure, this study designed 51 sets of specimens with recycled coarse aggregate replacement rate, nanomaterial content, and [...] Read more.
To investigate the effects of incorporating nanomaterials—carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene oxide (GO)—on the axial compressive mechanical properties of alkali-activated recycled aggregate concrete (AARAC) after high-temperature exposure, this study designed 51 sets of specimens with recycled coarse aggregate replacement rate, nanomaterial content, and temperature as the main parameters. Compression tests were conducted to analyze the failure mode and strength variation in AARAC specimens after heating. In addition, microscopic tests, including X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and computed tomography (CT scanning), were performed to analyze the microstructural characteristics of the post-heated AARAC specimens. The results indicate that as the replacement rate of recycled coarse aggregate increased from 0% to 100%, the residual compressive strength after exposure to 600 °C decreased from 33.6 MPa to 19 MPa. When 0.1 wt% of CNTs is added, the compressive strength of AARAC after exposure to a high temperature of 600 °C increases by approximately 30.4% compared to that of AARAC without nanomaterial addition. When 0.1 wt% of CNTs and 0.05 wt% of GO are added, the compressive strength after exposure to a high temperature of 600 °C increases by approximately 44.3%, while the size of scattered fragments upon failure increased, and the failure mode appeared more complete. Microscopic test results indicate that the high-temperature treatment did not cause significant changes in the main phase composition of AARAC. The synergistic effect of the nanomaterials CNTs and GO can fully utilize their functions as nucleation sites, pore fillers, and crack bridging agents. By strengthening the Interfacial Transition Zone between the recycled coarse aggregate and the cement paste, refining the Matrix Pore Structure, dispersing local thermal stress, and suppressing the propagation of high-temperature cracks, the mechanical properties of AARAC after high-temperature exposure can be effectively maintained. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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19 pages, 4185 KB  
Article
Research on the Static and Dynamic Behavior and Microscopic Mechanisms of Lignosulfonate-Treated Sand
by Jinbao Wang, Zishan Fang, Lina Xiao, Javid Hussain and Xiaomeng Ji
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1458; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071458 - 7 Apr 2026
Abstract
Sand, a widely used material in construction, often presents challenges in engineering applications due to its loose granular structure. To address this issue, lignosulfonate (LS), an eco-friendly industrial by-product, is explored as a stabilizing agent in this study. This research investigates the effects [...] Read more.
Sand, a widely used material in construction, often presents challenges in engineering applications due to its loose granular structure. To address this issue, lignosulfonate (LS), an eco-friendly industrial by-product, is explored as a stabilizing agent in this study. This research investigates the effects of LS on the static and dynamic properties of sand, including its impact on compaction, compressive strength, and shear strength. A combination of laboratory tests, including unconfined compressive strength (UCS), direct shear tests, and resonant column tests, was used to evaluate the performance of LS-treated sand under different conditions. The study reveals that LS enhances the compaction, shear strength, and dynamic stiffness of sand, with an optimal LS content of 8%. This work contributes to the development of sustainable geotechnical materials and offers valuable insights for improving soil properties in foundation and subgrade applications under dynamic loading conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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23 pages, 6144 KB  
Article
A Study on Spatial Narrative Strategies of China’s National Industrial Heritage: The Case of Nantong Guangsheng Oil Mill
by Zhenyu Yang, Xiaohan Li, Qi An and Yifan Ma
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1457; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071457 - 7 Apr 2026
Abstract
Addressing the prevalent issue of “physical preservation but spiritual silence” in the revitalisation of China’s national industrial heritage, this study proposes and empirically validates a “dual-track narrative” design framework that systematically translates cultural values into spatial experiences. The framework integrates a “figure–history” narrative, [...] Read more.
Addressing the prevalent issue of “physical preservation but spiritual silence” in the revitalisation of China’s national industrial heritage, this study proposes and empirically validates a “dual-track narrative” design framework that systematically translates cultural values into spatial experiences. The framework integrates a “figure–history” narrative, which crystallises historical lineage and symbolic spirit through spatial sequences, commemorative landmarks, and authentic remains, with a “scene–activity” narrative, which transforms former production spaces into dynamic, culturally vibrant stages through ecological restoration displays, industrial landscape transformation, and flexible activity implantation. Using Nantong Guangsheng Oil Mill as a single-case study, the research employs qualitative methods including archival analysis, field observation, and semi-structured interviews to examine how the dual-track framework operates in practice. The findings reveal that the “figure–history” narrative manifests in a walkable “time corridor” along the north–south axis, where architectural remnants from different eras are organised to materialise Zhang Jian’s industrial salvation ethos and the collective memory of generations of workers. Meanwhile, the “scene–activity” narrative activates underutilised spaces—such as the repurposing of acid treatment ponds into constructed wetlands and paved grounds into public stages—enabling ongoing cultural production, community interaction, and ecological healing. The study demonstrates that the dual-track framework bridges the historical and contemporary dimensions often treated separately in heritage practice, establishing a systematic “translation mechanism” from cultural decoding to design intervention. Theoretically, it contributes to industrial heritage research by integrating narratology, memory studies, heritage interpretation, and situationism into a coherent design methodology. Practically, it offers decision-makers evaluation criteria beyond the preservation-versus-development binary, provides designers with a mode of creative transformation grounded in material authenticity, and suggests to operators a content-driven, event-based model for sustaining heritage spaces. By spatialising and eventising narratives, the dual-track approach enables industrial heritage to function as a catalyst for cultural identity, social vitality, and economic sustainability, offering a transferable paradigm for the adaptive reuse of industrial heritage in contemporary urban contexts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emotional Resonance and Evidence-Based Planning for Industrial and Cultural Heritage Revitalization)
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33 pages, 5955 KB  
Article
SmartPave: Development of an Embedded Multi-Sensor Monitoring System for Highway Infrastructure Performance Assessment
by Suphawut Malaikrisanachalee, Auckpath Sawangsuriya, Phansak Sattayhatewa, Ponlathep Lertworawanich, Apiniti Jotisankasa, Susit Chaiprakaikeow and Narongrit Wongwai
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1456; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071456 - 7 Apr 2026
Abstract
Accurate characterization of pavement responses under real traffic loading is essential for improving pavement design reliability. This study presents SmartPave, a full-scale embedded monitoring system for measuring multilayer pavement responses under heavy vehicle loading. The system integrates embedded multi-sensors to capture stress, strain, [...] Read more.
Accurate characterization of pavement responses under real traffic loading is essential for improving pavement design reliability. This study presents SmartPave, a full-scale embedded monitoring system for measuring multilayer pavement responses under heavy vehicle loading. The system integrates embedded multi-sensors to capture stress, strain, temperature, and moisture within pavement layers. Field experiments were conducted under static and moving loading conditions. The results show that peak vertical stresses in the granular base were approximately 1.7–2.0 times higher than those at the subgrade, indicating stress attenuation with depth, while tensile strains at the bottom of the asphalt layer ranged between 200 and 350 µε. Lower vehicle speeds increased load duration and amplified viscoelastic strain responses. These findings demonstrate the capability of the system to provide reliable field data for mechanistic analysis and model calibration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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22 pages, 2283 KB  
Article
Urban Style and Features’ Visual Quality and Influencing Factors: A Case Study of Fangcheng Historical and Cultural District in Shenyang, China
by Ning Tang, Sa Wang and Mei Lyu
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1455; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071455 - 7 Apr 2026
Abstract
Historical and cultural districts are the outcome of cultural sedimentation brought about by urban development, and they embody distinctive urban historical and cultural connotations. Ignoring the protection of the historical and cultural value contained in streetscapes will not only decrease the life quality [...] Read more.
Historical and cultural districts are the outcome of cultural sedimentation brought about by urban development, and they embody distinctive urban historical and cultural connotations. Ignoring the protection of the historical and cultural value contained in streetscapes will not only decrease the life quality of residents but will also diminish distinctive local urban features. This study focused on the Fangcheng historical and cultural district in Shenyang. The scenic beauty estimation method was employed to evaluate urban style and features’ visual quality, while the semantic differential method was used to obtain the subjective perceptual features of samples. The study also systematically explored the dynamic relationship between urban style and features’ quality and subjective perception in historical and cultural districts. The results show that color richness, coherence, iconic status, and continuum all exert significant positive predictive effects on visual preferences regarding urban style and features. Color richness was the primary determinant of urban style and features’ visual quality. Continuum interfaces, a unified spatial texture, and coordinated dimensions contributed significantly to improving urban style and features’ visual quality in historic and cultural districts. The distinctiveness and cultural iconic status of historical and cultural districts enhanced the residents’ identity and place memory. Moreover, the coherence and continuum of style between the old and new elements promoted an integrated aesthetic experience. The evaluation results revealed that the overall visual quality of urban style and features of most streets was medium. However, streets with a higher visual quality cluster among historical streets and commercial streets. The residential streets demonstrated a significantly lower visual quality. Establishing a comprehensive evaluation system that integrates urban style and features, subjective perception, and the style of historical and cultural districts can contribute to covering the shortage in the traditional urban style and features’ research and also provide a basis for urban regeneration at the micro scale. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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23 pages, 1048 KB  
Article
The Impact of Campus Pathway Landscape Environment on Multidimensional Health Benefits of University Students
by Xiang Ji, Yao Fu, Qingyu Li, Zhuolin Shi, Kexin Bao, Mei Lyu and Dong Sun
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1454; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071454 - 7 Apr 2026
Viewed by 4
Abstract
University students face sustained academic, employment, and social pressures. Campus pathways, as central linear spaces in daily routines, hold significant potential to influence well-being, yet existing research has largely overlooked how their environmental characteristics affect multidimensional health. Using Shenyang Jianzhu University as a [...] Read more.
University students face sustained academic, employment, and social pressures. Campus pathways, as central linear spaces in daily routines, hold significant potential to influence well-being, yet existing research has largely overlooked how their environmental characteristics affect multidimensional health. Using Shenyang Jianzhu University as a case, this study identified frequently used pathways through GPS tracking and surveys, and quantitatively analyzed how environmental features affect walking willingness, emotional experience, and social interaction. By comparing high- and low-benefit groups, the key environmental thresholds were identified to inform health-oriented design. Beyond verifying some established understandings (e.g., daily commuting paths prioritize efficiency, while leisure paths focus on experiential quality), the study further revealed several mechanisms through quantitative analysis. For example, “road accessibility”—an indicator of convenience—showed a significant negative correlation with emotional experience. The study established quantifiable prediction models and identified design thresholds for campus pathways. A high aesthetic greenery was key to achieving high overall benefits, while low building enclosure and vegetation complexity promoted social interaction. This achievement transforms health-oriented campus pathway design from qualitative principles into a measurable and optimizable scientific practice, thus providing an empirical basis and practical guidance for the construction of health-supportive campus environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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24 pages, 11340 KB  
Article
Influence of Concrete Waste and Fly Ash Additions on the Mechanical and Antimicrobial Properties of Portland Cement Mortars
by Cosmin-Ion Anechitei, Alina-Ioana Badanoiu, Georgeta Voicu, Cornelia-Ioana Ilie and Adrian-Ionut Nicoara
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1453; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071453 - 7 Apr 2026
Viewed by 21
Abstract
Construction and demolition activities generate over one-third of all waste produced within the European Union, with the largest fraction being mineral materials, and concrete representing up to 90% of this volume. In this context, the recycling of this type of waste is an [...] Read more.
Construction and demolition activities generate over one-third of all waste produced within the European Union, with the largest fraction being mineral materials, and concrete representing up to 90% of this volume. In this context, the recycling of this type of waste is an important research topic with growing scientific and industrial relevance. While numerous studies have examined the influence of recycled concrete and other industrial waste on the technical performance of Portland cement-based composites, the antimicrobial resistance of these composites remains largely unexplored. Therefore, in this study we evaluate the effects of three different waste materials on the key properties of Portland cement mortar, as well as on its antimicrobial resistance; the investigated waste materials were fly ash (produced in thermal power plants), recycled concrete fines resulted from the mechanical processing of concrete waste generated in construction and demolition activities, as well as dried concrete slurry (a byproduct of concrete batching plants). The partial replacement of Portland cement with these concrete wastes slightly increased the mortar’s workability (up to 4.6%). However, it also led to an 11–12% reduction in compressive strength after 28 days of hardening. After 60 days of curing, the antimicrobial properties of these mortars were evaluated by assessing their effect on planktonic microbial growth and their anti-adherent capacity against the most common pathogenic strains (S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, C. albicans, and C. parapsilosis). Antimicrobial assays were performed at two different concentrations of microbial suspensions, and the mortars exhibited significant antibiofilm properties against all strains, especially against E. coli. The study identified mortar formulations in which partial replacement of cement with construction, demolition, and industrial waste materials resulted in compressive strength and antimicrobial resistance comparable to those of conventional reference mortars. These findings highlight the potential to integrate recycled waste into Portland cement-based materials, supporting both structural integrity and microbial resistance and advancing sustainable construction practices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Properties of Sustainable Composite Materials for Building Applications)
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31 pages, 14120 KB  
Article
Model Updating of a Tower Type Masonry Structure Using Multi-Criteria Decision-Making Methods and Evaluation of Its Earthquake Performance on 6 February 2023
by Hakan Erkek
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1452; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071452 - 7 Apr 2026
Viewed by 39
Abstract
This study aims to determine the current seismic resistance of two masonry minarets that were severely damaged during the 6 February 2023 Kahramanmaraş earthquakes, while also evaluating whether a model-updating approach based on experimental dynamic characteristics can reliably capture the actual seismic behavior [...] Read more.
This study aims to determine the current seismic resistance of two masonry minarets that were severely damaged during the 6 February 2023 Kahramanmaraş earthquakes, while also evaluating whether a model-updating approach based on experimental dynamic characteristics can reliably capture the actual seismic behavior and collapse mechanism of such structures under real earthquake conditions. The dynamic characteristics of the minarets were identified using Operational Modal Analysis (OMA) based on previous in-situ vibration measurements. These characteristics were used to calibrate finite element models through a model-updating process employing Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) methods. The initial modal analyses revealed discrepancies of up to 13.7% in natural frequencies and 9.7% in mode shapes. After applying MCDM methods to a wide set of model variants, these differences were reduced to 2.0% and 9.2%, respectively, improving the agreement between numerical and experimental results. Once the most representative models were obtained, nonlinear seismic analyses were performed using actual ground motion records from the earthquake. The results included evaluations of peak displacements, base shear forces, and principal stresses. The concentration of principal stresses near the transition zone showed good qualitative agreement with the observed collapse locations, indicating a reasonable consistency between numerical results and observed damage patterns. These findings demonstrate the value of integrating OMA-based model updating with MCDM methods and support a data-driven framework for assessing the seismic performance of historical masonry structures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue AI-Driven Health Monitoring and Management of Building and Energy Structures)
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30 pages, 5438 KB  
Article
Prioritizing Energy-Efficient Envelope Retrofit Strategies for Existing Residential Buildings in Severe Cold Regions Through Multi-Dimensional Benefit Evaluation
by Jiajia Teng, Conrong Wang, Lei Zhang, Weipeng Yin, Yongze Li and Zijun Wu
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1451; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071451 - 7 Apr 2026
Viewed by 66
Abstract
Energy-efficient retrofit of existing residential buildings is essential for reducing heating energy demand and carbon emissions in severe cold regions. However, the absence of a structured quantitative evaluation approach often limits effective decision-making in practice. This study develops a multi-dimensional evaluation framework integrating [...] Read more.
Energy-efficient retrofit of existing residential buildings is essential for reducing heating energy demand and carbon emissions in severe cold regions. However, the absence of a structured quantitative evaluation approach often limits effective decision-making in practice. This study develops a multi-dimensional evaluation framework integrating the Fuzzy Delphi Method and Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to assess and prioritize building envelope retrofit strategies. A representative non-energy-efficient residential building in Changchun, China, is selected as a case study. Based on expert consultation, a hierarchical indicator system is established, and indicator weights are determined with satisfactory consistency (CR < 0.1). The results indicate that envelope thermal performance and energy–carbon benefits are the dominant factors influencing retrofit decisions. At the parameter level, insulation thermal conductivity and external wall heat transfer coefficient are identified as the most critical variables. The findings suggest that prioritizing improvements in envelope thermal performance can effectively enhance energy-saving and carbon-reduction performance under practical constraints. The proposed framework provides a practical and transferable decision-support tool for energy-efficient retrofit planning for existing residential buildings in severe cold regions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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20 pages, 12712 KB  
Article
Large-Scale Airborne LiDAR Point Cloud Building Extraction Based on Improved Voxelized Deep Learning Network
by Bai Xue, Yanru Song, Pi Ai, Hongzhou Li, Shuhan Liu and Li Guo
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1450; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071450 - 7 Apr 2026
Viewed by 68
Abstract
High-precision 3D building data are pivotal for smart city development, urban planning, and disaster management. However, large-scale building extraction from airborne LiDAR point clouds remains challenging due to semantic ambiguity, uneven point density, and complex architectural structures. To address these limitations, we propose [...] Read more.
High-precision 3D building data are pivotal for smart city development, urban planning, and disaster management. However, large-scale building extraction from airborne LiDAR point clouds remains challenging due to semantic ambiguity, uneven point density, and complex architectural structures. To address these limitations, we propose a novel framework integrating geometric topology perception with cross-dimensional attention mechanisms within a Sparse Voxel Convolutional Neural Network (SPVCNN). The key contributions include: (1) an enhanced LaserMix++ multi-scale hybrid augmentation strategy featuring cross-scene block replacement, ground normal–constrained rotation, and non-uniform scaling; (2) a dual-branch SPVCNN architecture embedding a collaborative module of Geometric Self-Attention (GSA) and Cross-Space Residual Attention (CSRA) to preserve topological consistency and enable cross-dimensional feature interaction; and (3) a Boundary Enhancement Module (BEM) specifically designed to resolve boundary ambiguity and overlapping predictions. Evaluated on a 177 km2 dataset covering Washington, D.C., our method significantly outperforms the baseline SPVCNN, improving accuracy by 12.04 percentage points (0.8212 to 0.9416) and Intersection over Union (IoU) by 9.96 percentage points (0.866 to 0.9656). Furthermore, it surpasses mainstream networks such as Cylinder3D and MinkResNet by over 50% in absolute accuracy gain. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of synergistically combining geometric perception with adaptive attention for robust building extraction from large-scale LiDAR data. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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23 pages, 1486 KB  
Article
The Impact of Material on Environmental Indicators: An LCA Analysis of 30 Variants of Pitched Roofs
by Jana Budajová, Katarína Harčárová, Veronika Merjavá, Eva Krídlová Burdová, Svitlana Delehan, Sérgio Lousada and Silvia Vilčeková
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1449; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071449 - 6 Apr 2026
Viewed by 213
Abstract
This study presents a comprehensive life cycle assessment (LCA) of 30 variants of pitched roofs compositions, focusing on global, regional, and local environmental indicators. The aim of this study was to quantify the environmental footprint of roof structures, comparing traditional technical solutions with [...] Read more.
This study presents a comprehensive life cycle assessment (LCA) of 30 variants of pitched roofs compositions, focusing on global, regional, and local environmental indicators. The aim of this study was to quantify the environmental footprint of roof structures, comparing traditional technical solutions with modern systems using bio-based materials. The results show that the integration of solid wood elements and bio-based insulations significantly increases carbon sequestration potential, with the best identified composition showing a significantly negative GWP-total. A dynamic analysis of the optimal variant over time horizons of 50, 100 and 150 years, confirming the stability of environmental benefits in the long term, is presented. In order to achieve a global character, the best composition is modified and optimized for mild, cold and warm climate zones. The work provides important background for decarbonization of the construction sector and the design of adaptive, low-emission building envelope structures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resilient Buildings Worldwide: Climate Adaptation, Risk Mitigation, and Performance)
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22 pages, 4917 KB  
Technical Note
Reducing Latency in Digital Twins: A Framework for Near-Real-Time Progress and Quality Reporting
by Zvonko Sigmund, Ivica Završki, Ivan Marović and Kristijan Vilibić
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1448; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071448 - 6 Apr 2026
Viewed by 249
Abstract
While Digital Twins offer transformative potential, their efficacy for real-time control is constrained by the slow data acquisition and the high computational intensity required to process raw datasets like point clouds. This paper identifies these critical bottlenecks—specifically the latency between data capture and [...] Read more.
While Digital Twins offer transformative potential, their efficacy for real-time control is constrained by the slow data acquisition and the high computational intensity required to process raw datasets like point clouds. This paper identifies these critical bottlenecks—specifically the latency between data capture and actionable insight—and proposes a refined theoretical framework for near-real-time automated progress monitoring and quality reporting. Building on the findings of the NORMENG project and informing the subsequent AutoGreenTraC project, this research synthesizes state-of-the-art advancements in reality capture, including LIDAR, SfM-MVS, and 360-degree vision. The study highlights a fundamental divergence in stakeholder requirements: the need for millimeter-level precision in quality control versus the demand for high-velocity documentation for progress monitoring. A key innovation presented is the shift toward neural rendering techniques to bypass the computational delays of traditional photogrammetry and enable immediate on-site visualization. By structuring a tiered processing hierarchy that combines lightweight edge analysis for immediate safety and progress monitoring with asynchronous high-fidelity Digital Twin updates, the framework aims to establish a single source of truth. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Building Information Modelling in Construction Management)
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22 pages, 4129 KB  
Article
Research on the Rate–Wet Coupling Mechanism of Concrete Compressive Strength
by Chundi Jiang, Xueting Jiang, Zichen Zhang, Ping Li and Xianzhu Wang
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1447; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071447 - 5 Apr 2026
Viewed by 290
Abstract
To investigate the strength evolution of concrete structures operating in long-term service in humid environments while facing threats such as earthquakes, explosions, and impacts, this study utilized a Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) and an MTS testing system to conduct experiments on concrete with [...] Read more.
To investigate the strength evolution of concrete structures operating in long-term service in humid environments while facing threats such as earthquakes, explosions, and impacts, this study utilized a Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) and an MTS testing system to conduct experiments on concrete with four different moisture contents (relative saturation of 0%, 50%, 80%, and 100%) across a strain rate range of approximately 10−5 to 2 × 102 s−1. Based on these results, a relationship equation was established describing how the strength factor of wet concrete varies with strain rate. The study identified sensitive and non-sensitive regions for the strain rate effect in wet concrete. As the water content increases, the threshold for the sensitive region decreases. Specifically, the inflection strain rate for dried concrete is approximately 32 s−1, whereas for saturated concrete, it drops below 5 s−1. A functional equation describing the variation in the strain rate sensitivity coefficient with water content was derived, showing that the strain rate effect on strength becomes more pronounced as water content increases. The rate-wet coupling effect on concrete compressive strength was analyzed, and zones dominated by the strain rate strengthening effect and the water-weakening effect were identified. The mechanism of strength variation in wet concrete across different strain rate ranges was investigated. The analysis indicates that free water participates in the action processes of each mechanism from low to high strain rates. As the strain rate increases, the mechanisms of pore water interaction and thermal activation undergo a transition. At higher strain rates, the significant increase in the dynamic strength of wet concrete results from the combined and coupled effects of the material’s “true strain rate effect” and the stress wave effect in wet concrete, which are driven by the mutual coupling of pore water, thermal activation, and viscous drag mechanisms. This paper aims to provide a reference for the in-depth understanding of the strength evolution and control of hydraulic concrete structures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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34 pages, 2397 KB  
Article
Comparative Environmental and Economic Performance of Steel- and GFRP-Reinforced Concrete Bridge Decks Under Durability- Based Service Life Scenarios
by Fabrizio Schembari, Mattia Mairone, Davide Masera and Mauro Corrado
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1446; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071446 - 5 Apr 2026
Viewed by 227
Abstract
Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) bars are emerging as an alternative to steel reinforcement in concrete structures thanks to their high mechanical performance and intrinsic resistance to corrosion. Nevertheless, their actual sustainability must be verified through an assessment that considers long-term durability, life cycle environmental [...] Read more.
Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) bars are emerging as an alternative to steel reinforcement in concrete structures thanks to their high mechanical performance and intrinsic resistance to corrosion. Nevertheless, their actual sustainability must be verified through an assessment that considers long-term durability, life cycle environmental impacts, and economic feasibility. The replacement of steel reinforcement with GFRP in concrete bridge decks is herein evaluated through an integrated methodology. First, a comprehensive literature review examines the degradation processes observed experimentally and the associated long-term evolution of mechanical properties, providing the basis for defining realistic durability scenarios. Subsequently, a comparative Life Cycle Assessment is conducted adopting a cradle-to-grave system boundary and using Environmental Product Declarations to build the Life Cycle Inventory and perform the Impact Assessment. Normalization and weighting phases are included for a better understanding of the overall impacts of the two alternatives. In parallel, a Cost Analysis is performed consistently with the system boundaries and scenarios considered in the Life Cycle Assessment. Finally, the Envision protocol, a framework to evaluate sustainability and resilience of infrastructures, is applied to identify credits directly influenced by the adoption of GFRP reinforcement. The results show that steel reinforcement exhibits lower initial environmental impacts and remains more economical over short service life horizons. However, if the extended durability of GFRP is considered, the reduction in heavy maintenance activities allows this solution to achieve superior environmental performance and improved economic balance. The Envision-based evaluation further confirms the potential contribution of GFRP reinforcement to higher sustainability ratings in infrastructure projects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Innovative Structures and Materials: Analysis, Design and Application)
22 pages, 2984 KB  
Article
Human–AI Collaborative Design in Architectural Studios: Evaluating Paradigm Shifts Across the Six Stages of the Design Process
by Hend Alana, Mohamed Fikry and Asmaa Hasan
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1445; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071445 - 5 Apr 2026
Viewed by 292
Abstract
Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly transforming architectural education, shifting design studios toward human–AI collaborative workflows. This study investigates the impact of AI integration across the six stages of the architectural design process: pre-design, conceptual design, schematic design, design development, documentation, and presentation. A [...] Read more.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly transforming architectural education, shifting design studios toward human–AI collaborative workflows. This study investigates the impact of AI integration across the six stages of the architectural design process: pre-design, conceptual design, schematic design, design development, documentation, and presentation. A mixed-methods approach was adopted, combining survey data from 17 master’s degree students with reflective insights from eight faculty members involved in hybrid AI-supported studio environments. AI’s influence was evaluated using six indicators: efficiency, creativity enhancement, accuracy, interdisciplinary integration, adoptability, and environmental or architectural impact. The findings indicate that AI is most effective during early design stages, where it supports idea generation, visualization, and rapid iteration. Its impact becomes less pronounced in later technical phases, where human expertise and critical reasoning remain essential. Students perceived AI as a creative catalyst and productivity enhancer, while faculty emphasized its analytical and evaluative potential in supporting informed decision-making. Overall, AI functions most effectively as a complementary partner rather than a replacement for human agency. The study proposes a structured framework to guide ethical and pedagogically sound AI integration within architectural design studios. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence in Architecture and Interior Design)
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20 pages, 9976 KB  
Article
Churches and Urban Centrality in Barcelona: A Cartographic and Morphological Reading of the Network of 132 Catholic Parishes
by Alba Arboix-Alió, Josep Maria Pons-Poblet and Adrià Arboix
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1444; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071444 - 5 Apr 2026
Viewed by 170
Abstract
Despite abundant scholarship on religious architecture and urban history, a systematic city-wide analysis that treats the parish system as a territorially relevant infrastructure for planning remains uncommon. This article examines Barcelona’s network of 132 Catholic parish churches as a cartographic layer for interpreting [...] Read more.
Despite abundant scholarship on religious architecture and urban history, a systematic city-wide analysis that treats the parish system as a territorially relevant infrastructure for planning remains uncommon. This article examines Barcelona’s network of 132 Catholic parish churches as a cartographic layer for interpreting distributed centralities and their relationships with public space. The study is grounded in an exhaustive inventory based on on-site visits and archival consultation, and on a standardised redrawing protocol (Sitte and Nolli conventions) developed from municipal cartography and architectural plans. Synthesis maps and fabric-specific drawings document spatial patterns that vary across phases of urban growth, as well as recurrent typologies of relationships between churches, squares, and urban axes. Across the corpus, at least 25 churches are associated with squares and can be grouped into four recurrent arrangements (12 with a single frontal square; 4 with concatenated lateral squares; 3 surrounded by open space; and 6 with squares severed by through-traffic infrastructure). District plates further reveal contrasting typological distributions between Ciutat Vella (n = 16), Eixample (n = 19), Gràcia (n = 11), and Nou Barris (n = 14). The findings show that Barcelona’s Catholic parish cartography constitutes a key interpretative layer for understanding the city’s complexity, including its social and urban transformations, neighbourhood-level mechanisms of resilience, and the interaction between religious networks, urban form, and civic culture. The resulting cartographic protocol is reproducible and transferable to studies of urbanisation and regional development, offering an operational framework for planning debates on the governance of public space, heritage conservation, and urban sustainability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Studies in Urban and Regional Planning—2nd Edition)
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27 pages, 1976 KB  
Article
Optimization Analysis of Green Residential Building Energy Systems Based on Economic and Low-Carbon Benefits
by Yu Liu, Yibing Xue, Tian Mu and Yingge Zhang
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1443; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071443 - 5 Apr 2026
Viewed by 168
Abstract
This study investigates the soil thermal imbalance of ground-source heat pump (GSHP) systems in residential buildings in cold regions and evaluates their economic and low-carbon performance. A case study is presented of a two-star green-certified residential building in Qingdao. The building exhibits a [...] Read more.
This study investigates the soil thermal imbalance of ground-source heat pump (GSHP) systems in residential buildings in cold regions and evaluates their economic and low-carbon performance. A case study is presented of a two-star green-certified residential building in Qingdao. The building exhibits a high heating load in winter, a low cooling load in summer, a long heating season, and large load fluctuations. To tackle these characteristics, a composite energy system combining a ground-source heat pump, a peak-shaving chiller, and a peak-shaving boiler is proposed. Three scenarios are designed, in which the ground-source heat pump covers 45%, 50%, and 52.6% of the winter peak heating load, respectively. These are compared with a conventional municipal heating scheme. Load simulation, techno-economic analysis, and carbon emission assessment are performed. The results show that the scheme in which the ground-source heat pump handles 50% of the peak heating load achieves the best overall performance. It reduces the soil thermal imbalance rate from 34.47% to 7.1% and obtains the lowest 10-year life-cycle cost. The annual carbon emission reaches 32.58 kgCO2/(m2·a), representing a 33% reduction compared with municipal heating. Seasonal and diurnal optimized operation strategies are further proposed based on the optimal solution. The results provide theoretical and engineering guidance for the design and operation of low-carbon energy systems in green residential buildings in cold regions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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47 pages, 11325 KB  
Review
Natural Materials in Contemporary Vernacular Architecture: A Literature Review and Case Study of Sustainable Construction in the Danube Delta
by Andreea Hegyi, Cristian Petcu, Horia Petran, Adrian-Victor Lăzărescu, Alexandra Csapai and Tudor Panfil Toader
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1442; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071442 - 5 Apr 2026
Viewed by 141
Abstract
This paper studies the sustainable integration of vernacular construction techniques and natural materials in the context of sustainable development, using Danube Delta UNESCO World Heritage site as case study. Through a comprehensive literature review, this research examines the potential of clay-based composites reinforced [...] Read more.
This paper studies the sustainable integration of vernacular construction techniques and natural materials in the context of sustainable development, using Danube Delta UNESCO World Heritage site as case study. Through a comprehensive literature review, this research examines the potential of clay-based composites reinforced with plant fibres such as reed, bulrush, and hemp as environmentally responsible building materials. The methodology, based on a narrative literature review, combines bibliometric analysis with a case study approach to evaluate scientific interest in vernacular construction and to identify locally available natural resources. Results reveal increasing academic attention to sustainable vernacular architecture, highlighting clay-based composite’s favourable hygrothermal properties and the remarkable thermal insulation capabilities of vegetable fibres. The case study shows that most Danube Delta’s natural construction materials—particularly the world’s largest continuous reed vegetation—remain underutilized. The research concludes that revitalizing traditional construction methods, by integrating modern technological innovations, presents significant potential for sustainable rural development, preserving cultural heritage, enhancing regional identity, and reducing environmental impact in construction while supporting local economic growth through culturally authentic tourism. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancing Sustainable and Cost-Effective Practices in Building Design and Construction)
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45 pages, 8638 KB  
Article
Advancing Sustainable Building Construction Through Immersive Digital Technologies: Towards Digital Transformation in the Nigerian Context
by Oluwagbemiga Paul Agboola and Abdulaziz Mislat Alsharif
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1441; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071441 - 5 Apr 2026
Viewed by 153
Abstract
Rapid urbanisation and resource constraints necessitate the adoption of sustainable construction practices in developing economies, yet empirical evidence on the effectiveness of digital technologies remains limited. This study develops and validates an integrated framework to evaluate the contribution of immersive digital technologies to [...] Read more.
Rapid urbanisation and resource constraints necessitate the adoption of sustainable construction practices in developing economies, yet empirical evidence on the effectiveness of digital technologies remains limited. This study develops and validates an integrated framework to evaluate the contribution of immersive digital technologies to sustainable construction performance in Nigeria. Data were collected through a structured questionnaire survey of 353 construction professionals across Lagos, Abuja, and Port Harcourt. Key constructs—immersive technologies (Building Information Modelling, Virtual Reality, and Augmented Reality), sustainability outcomes, and adoption barriers were measured using multi-item Likert-scale indicators adapted from prior studies. The data were analysed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM), which was selected for its suitability in handling complex models and for prediction-oriented analysis. The measurement model demonstrated satisfactory reliability and validity, with average variance extracted (AVE) and composite reliability (CR) values ranging from 0.62 to 0.88. The structural model explained a substantial proportion of variance in sustainable construction outcomes (R2 = 0.89), with all hypothesised relationships statistically significant (p < 0.01). Immersive technologies showed strong positive effects (β = 0.63–0.82), while barriers such as high costs, limited technical expertise, and inadequate infrastructure constrained adoption. This study’s findings indicate the significant potential of immersive technologies to support sustainable construction in developing economies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue BIM and Smart Technologies in Building Design, Construction, and Lifecycle Management)
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19 pages, 4224 KB  
Article
Dynamic Mechanical Behavior and DIF-Based Capacity Prediction of Steel–CA–UHPC Composite Beams Under Impact Loading
by Hao Hu, Zhenpeng Yu, Xiaoqing Du and Yongping Zhang
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1440; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071440 - 5 Apr 2026
Viewed by 138
Abstract
Steel–concrete composite beams are widely used in building and bridge engineering; however, the impact response of Steel–Coarse Aggregate–Ultra-High Performance Concrete (Steel–CA–UHPC) composite beams remains insufficiently quantified, and no beam-specific dynamic capacity formula is available. To address this gap, companion static testing and drop-weight [...] Read more.
Steel–concrete composite beams are widely used in building and bridge engineering; however, the impact response of Steel–Coarse Aggregate–Ultra-High Performance Concrete (Steel–CA–UHPC) composite beams remains insufficiently quantified, and no beam-specific dynamic capacity formula is available. To address this gap, companion static testing and drop-weight impact tests were performed on full-scale simply supported steel–CA–UHPC composite beams under single and repeated impacts, followed by development of a strain-rate-dependent dynamic increase factor (DIF) model and a capacity prediction framework. The companion static specimen reached 448 kN, whereas the 5 m impact cases produced peak forces of 930.0–940.4 kN, corresponding to 2.08–2.10 times the static level, with the initial peak forming within 1.0–1.1 ms. Dynamic failure was marked by rapid mid-span cracking of the CA–UHPC slab and brittle shear fracture of studs, while repeated impacts mainly accelerated cumulative damage before the final high-energy strike. Static–dynamic displacement comparison further revealed much more abrupt deformation concentration under impact loading. A revised static capacity formula reduced the prediction error from 4.46% for the code-based method and 1.00% for the literature model to 0.74%. Combined with the fitted DIF–strain-rate relation, the proposed framework reproduced the measured dynamic capacities with errors of −4.63% to 9.75%. The study provides member-level evidence and a practical DIF-based method for evaluating the impact resistance of steel–CA–UHPC composite beams. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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27 pages, 8381 KB  
Article
Pushover Behavior of Unreinforced Masonry Walls Based on Multiple Modeling Methods: Damage Mechanism and Failure Mode
by Yonggang Liu, Hua Guo, Wenlong Wei, Shuo Chen, Yan Liu and Junlin Wang
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1439; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071439 - 5 Apr 2026
Viewed by 135
Abstract
As the most prevalent type of existing building in China, masonry structures are susceptible to cracking due to the low tensile strength of the masonry material. In the event of a sudden, strong earthquake, they are highly prone to brittle collapse, leaving occupants [...] Read more.
As the most prevalent type of existing building in China, masonry structures are susceptible to cracking due to the low tensile strength of the masonry material. In the event of a sudden, strong earthquake, they are highly prone to brittle collapse, leaving occupants little time and space to escape. Based on this, combining the advantages of the elastoplastic mechanical theory and the nonlinear finite element (FE) method, this study adopts different modeling methods: integral modeling (IM), contact element discrete modeling (CEDM), spring element discrete modeling (SEDM), and co-node discrete modeling (CNDM). FE models of unreinforced masonry walls (UMWs) are established, respectively, and a monotonic pushover mechanical performance analysis is carried out. The accuracy of the adopted modeling methods is verified against existing test results for UMW specimens. Through parametric analysis of aspect ratios (0.5, 0.75, 1.0, and 1.25), axial compression ratios (0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 0.8), and mortar strengths (M5, M7.5, and M10), the characteristic mechanical performance factors of UMWs are determined. A novel strength index is proposed to discriminate between failure modes and elucidate the damage mechanism of UMWs. The results indicate that the ultimate load and its corresponding displacement change systematically with variations in aspect ratios, axial compression ratios, and mortar strengths. Furthermore, integrating stress cloud maps with the proposed strength index provides a quantitative basis for discriminating between flexural and shear failure modes in UMWs. All four modeling methods can, to varying degrees, capture the pushover behavior of UMWs, and quantifiable selection schemes are provided to balance analysis accuracy and computational cost. The analytical methods and findings presented in this work can be applied to performance assessment, seismic design, and engineering practice of UMWs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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19 pages, 4097 KB  
Article
The Effect of Aging Time on the Hardening of Adhesives for Retard-Bonded Prestressed Tendon
by Qian-Feng Wei, Xian-Hua Li, Fang-Xin Jiang, Pei-Xun Li, Huan-Lin Guo, Shang-Zhi Chen, Liang Wu and Hai-Yu Cui
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1438; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071438 - 5 Apr 2026
Viewed by 123
Abstract
This study investigates the hardening behavior of adhesives used in retard-bonded prestressed tendons, with a focus on establishing a quantitative relationship between aging time and Shore hardness to enable rapid on-site assessment of curing degree. Accelerated curing tests were conducted at a constant [...] Read more.
This study investigates the hardening behavior of adhesives used in retard-bonded prestressed tendons, with a focus on establishing a quantitative relationship between aging time and Shore hardness to enable rapid on-site assessment of curing degree. Accelerated curing tests were conducted at a constant temperature of 45 °C on three adhesive series with different standard curing periods. Cone penetration, Shore hardness, and tensile shear strength were measured at regular intervals throughout the curing process. Microstructural evolution was characterized using SEM-EDX. The results show that cone penetration decreases stepwise with aging time, while Shore hardness and tensile shear strength increase monotonically. A significant linear correlation (R2 > 0.995) between Shore hardness and tensile shear strength was observed across all specimens. A novel logarithmic model is proposed to describe the evolution of relative Shore hardness as a function of relative aging time, achieving an R2 of 0.911. This model enables prediction of vadhesive hardness at any given time under 45 °C conditions, providing a practical tool for construction quality control. The findings offer a new pathway for non-destructive evaluation of adhesive curing in retard-bonded prestressed systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Advanced Composite Materials)
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41 pages, 7381 KB  
Review
A Review of Construction and Demolition Waste Management: Resource Coordination and Multidimensional Interaction
by Yi-Hsin Lin, Weidong Yuan and Ting Wang
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1437; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071437 - 5 Apr 2026
Viewed by 181
Abstract
Accelerated urbanization and continuous infrastructure renewal have led to a rapid increase in construction and demolition waste (CDW), which accounts for approximately 20–50% of municipal solid waste in many developed countries. Consequently, effective management and resource utilization of CDW have become critical challenges [...] Read more.
Accelerated urbanization and continuous infrastructure renewal have led to a rapid increase in construction and demolition waste (CDW), which accounts for approximately 20–50% of municipal solid waste in many developed countries. Consequently, effective management and resource utilization of CDW have become critical challenges for sustainable urban development. To address these challenges, this study develops an integrated analytical framework for CDW recycling systems. Specifically, it constructs a “cloud-edge-terminal” collaborative recycling system and clarifies the interactions among material, information, and value flows. A three-dimensional coupling framework is further established to reconceptualize CDW management as a multivariate decision-making problem, alongside a multidimensional evaluation structure to support practical implementation and system optimization. Methodologically, the study adopts an integrative review approach supported by knowledge mapping analysis. A structured literature search and screening process was conducted using the Web of Science Core Collection (2015–2026) to ensure transparency and reproducibility in the literature identification and sample construction. The results propose a multidimensional coupling framework integrating resource coordination, information communication, and market trading into a unified decision system. The framework contributes an engineering-oriented analytical paradigm that promotes hierarchical decision coordination, dynamic multi-objective regulation, and integrated management of CDW recycling systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Transformation in the Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC) Industry)
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25 pages, 1566 KB  
Article
Integrating Sustainability and Age-Friendliness: A Pathway for Coordinated Renewal in Dense Urban Communities—A Case Study of Yuexiu, Guangzhou
by Xiaozhong Liu, Ximu Shang, Zhaoyun Li, Yilai Shen, Yu Pei, Gaojie Qian and Yumei Hu
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1436; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071436 - 5 Apr 2026
Viewed by 149
Abstract
High-density cities face dual challenges of aging populations and climate change, driving widespread renewal of aging residential communities. Current practices, however, often treat sustainability goals (e.g., energy efficiency, carbon reduction) and age-friendly design objectives (e.g., accessibility, social inclusion), often guided by frameworks like [...] Read more.
High-density cities face dual challenges of aging populations and climate change, driving widespread renewal of aging residential communities. Current practices, however, often treat sustainability goals (e.g., energy efficiency, carbon reduction) and age-friendly design objectives (e.g., accessibility, social inclusion), often guided by frameworks like the World Health Organization’s (WHO) age-friendly cities initiative, as separate or conflicting agendas, leading to fragmented policies and suboptimal outcomes. This study addresses this gap by proposing and testing a framework for “Sustainable-Age-friendly Coordinated Renewal” (SACR). Through a mixed-methods case study of a typical old community in the humid subtropical city of Guangzhou, China, we investigate how green infrastructure and low-carbon interventions can be synergistically designed to enhance both environmental performance and the well-being of elderly residents. A “Coordinated Renewal Strategy Package” was developed, incorporating ecological shading, sponge city facilities, energy retrofits, and accessible slow-traffic systems. Post-intervention simulation and evaluation indicated significant improvements in microclimate (e.g., reduced mean radiant temperature and Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET)) and marked increases in outdoor activity duration and social interaction frequency among elderly residents. This study concludes that a human-centric, needs-based design approach is key to unlocking synergistic benefits. The proposed SACR framework and evaluation matrix offer a practical tool for urban planners, architects, and policymakers to holistically assess and implement community renewal projects, contributing to more resilient, inclusive, and sustainable urban futures by addressing localized challenges like the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Circularity Research and Innovation Towards Sustainable Cities and Built Environment)
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22 pages, 2369 KB  
Article
Toward Smart Pavements: Mechanical and Volumetric Evaluation of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Asphalt Composite
by Muhammad Saqib Khan, Rameez Ali Raja, Muhammad Imran Khan, Rania Al-Nawasir and Rafiq M. Choudhry
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1435; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071435 - 4 Apr 2026
Viewed by 236
Abstract
Asphalt pavements are frequently subjected to fatigue cracking, rutting, and surface wear, which accelerate maintenance needs and shorten service life. This study evaluates the performance enhancement of NHA Class B dense-graded asphalt mixtures (12.5 mm NMAS) prepared with a 60/70 penetration grade binder [...] Read more.
Asphalt pavements are frequently subjected to fatigue cracking, rutting, and surface wear, which accelerate maintenance needs and shorten service life. This study evaluates the performance enhancement of NHA Class B dense-graded asphalt mixtures (12.5 mm NMAS) prepared with a 60/70 penetration grade binder through carbon fiber (CF) reinforcement. Chopped fibers (~12.7 mm) were incorporated via the dry mixing process at dosages of 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% by binder weight. The results indicate that the 1.0% CF mixture delivered optimal performance, with ITS increasing by 51.9%, Marshall stability improving by 38.4%, resilient modulus rising by 42.6%, and rut depth decreasing by 69.2% compared to the unmodified control. Dynamic stability reached 33,750 passes/mm, demonstrating substantial resistance to permanent deformation. Statistical analysis using one-way ANOVA confirmed that all improvements were significant (p < 0.05). Despite a ~6.7% increase in initial cost, the CF-modified mix exhibited strong economic viability, achieving a benefit–cost ratio of 4.79 and significant life-cycle savings over 20 years. These findings underscore carbon fiber as an effective modifier for developing durable, high-performance asphalt composites with reduced maintenance requirements. This work contributes to the advancement of smart and sustainable pavement technologies for resilient transportation infrastructure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Composite Materials for Sustainable Construction)
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23 pages, 1329 KB  
Systematic Review
Knowledge-Informed Technology-Enabled Asset Management and Compliance Assurance in Construction: A Systematic Grey Literature Review
by Alhadi Alsaffar, Thomas Beach and Yacine Rezgui
Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1434; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071434 - 4 Apr 2026
Viewed by 232
Abstract
Digital transformation is reshaping construction asset compliance, but fragmented information and weak evidence trails still constrain effective management. This systematic grey literature review (2014–2025) identifies technologies supporting asset management and compliance assurance and compares adoption maturity across the United Kingdom (UK), the United [...] Read more.
Digital transformation is reshaping construction asset compliance, but fragmented information and weak evidence trails still constrain effective management. This systematic grey literature review (2014–2025) identifies technologies supporting asset management and compliance assurance and compares adoption maturity across the United Kingdom (UK), the United States (US), Singapore, and the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). Using multi-channel search strategies and the AACODS appraisal (Authority, Accuracy, Coverage, Objectivity, Date, Significance), 131 records were identified; 92 full texts reviewed; 82 eligible; and 43 sources retained. Coding identified a recurring five-technology “core digital stack”: Building Information Modelling (BIM), Digital Twins (DT), Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning (AI/ML), and Blockchain (BC). Within the retained corpus, BIM and AI/ML were the most frequently referenced technologies, whereas BC was referenced more selectively and discussed mainly for tamper-evident traceability. DT and IoT were typically discussed alongside BIM, while IoT also frequently co-occurred with AI/ML in analytics-led compliance workflows. A (Region × Technology) maturity matrix suggests higher, policy-led maturity where mandates and audit-ready information align with national frameworks (UK, Singapore), and more uneven, project-led adoption in decentralised contexts (US, GCC). Overall, the findings emphasise that effective compliance relies on integrated, evidence-focused digital stacks supported by standardised information governance rather than isolated tools. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bridging the Digital Divide in the Built Environment: Integrating Sustainability, Cultural Contexts, and Technological Innovation)
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