Buildings

23 pages, 9803 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental and Numerical Behaviour of Corrugated Steel-Reinforced Concrete Cross-Sections

by Yan Feng, Zongsheng Xu, Yufang Lin, Yanyun Jin, Huanxin Yuan, Zicheng Lyu and Xinxi Du

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1093; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051093 - 9 Mar 2026

Viewed by 284

A novel corrugated steel-reinforced concrete pipe that enhances electromagnetic shielding performance compared to the conventional reinforced concrete power pipes is developed and presented in this paper. In order to investigate the pipe’s behaviour under jacking and service conditions, the critical axial compression and [...] Read more.

A novel corrugated steel-reinforced concrete pipe that enhances electromagnetic shielding performance compared to the conventional reinforced concrete power pipes is developed and presented in this paper. In order to investigate the pipe’s behaviour under jacking and service conditions, the critical axial compression and flexural moment distributions were represented by two separate flat segments of a circular pipe cross-section, respectively. A total of six column specimens were designed for axial compression testing, while another four beam specimens were prepared for four-point bending tests to examine the bending behaviour. Prior to testing, all specimens were subjected to standard curing, and the material properties of steel and concrete were determined via standard tests. The load versus deformation curves of column specimens, the moment versus deflection curves of beam specimens, and the corresponding failure modes were obtained from the tested specimens. It was revealed that the load-carrying capacities of the corrugated steel-reinforced concrete cross-sections were comparable to those of the conventional reinforced concrete counterparts. Advanced finite element (FE) models incorporating the mechanical properties of encased corrugated steel plates (CSPs) and the damage development of concrete were developed and were validated against the experimental failure modes and load-carrying capacities. Based on both experimental and numerical results, the load-carrying capacity of corrugated steel-reinforced concrete cross-sections was evaluated by referring to Chinese standard GB/T 11836 and American standard ASTM C76. The experimental and numerical finding can pave the way for further research and applications of this novel type of corrugated steel-reinforced concrete pipe. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Numerical and Experimental Research on Steel-Concrete Composite Structural Systems)

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21 pages, 8936 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Window Presence and Size on Human Recovery: An EEG Microstate Study

by Jiaxin Li, Genzheng Guan, Chao Liu, Xiaotong Jing, Weijun Gao and Hiroatsu Fukuda

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1092; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051092 - 9 Mar 2026

Viewed by 290

Abstract

Although windows are known to modulate occupant well-being, the specific capacity of window dimensions to alleviate stress requires deeper empirical validation. To address this, we evaluated 36 young, healthy subjects (aged 20–27) within a virtual office configured with four window-to-wall ratios (WWR: 0%, [...] Read more.

Although windows are known to modulate occupant well-being, the specific capacity of window dimensions to alleviate stress requires deeper empirical validation. To address this, we evaluated 36 young, healthy subjects (aged 20–27) within a virtual office configured with four window-to-wall ratios (WWR: 0%, 25%, 50%, and 75%). Stress levels were quantified by integrating subjective evaluations with EEG time–frequency domains and microstate transitions. The results demonstrated that windowed conditions consistently elevated subjective comfort ratings and α-wave activity, reflecting enhanced psychological relaxation. Notably, measured brain activity exhibited a peak at 0% WWR and a global minimum at 50% WWR, suggesting a potential physiological threshold for maximum relaxation within the tested demographic. Subsequent microstate analysis confirmed that windowed environments extended the duration of states B (visual processing), C (saliency network), and D (attention orientation), alongside increased transition shifts from state A to B and from state B to C. Utilizing these extracted physiological biomarkers, a developed neural network model predicted human comfort with 78.79% accuracy. Ultimately, these preliminary findings indicate that optimized window scaling can measurably mitigate urban stress, providing a data-driven theoretical framework for architectural design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)

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22 pages, 6872 KB

Open AccessArticle

Strengthening Technology of Corrugated Plates for Diseased Culverts in Heavy-Haul Railways

by Shuli Chen, Chen Li, Bo Yang, Chunkai Cui and Ying Cheng

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1091; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051091 - 9 Mar 2026

Viewed by 233

Abstract

In response to the increasing structural damage, reduced load-bearing capacity, and diminished durability of heavy-haul railway culverts under heavy axle load transportation conditions, this study focuses on the application of assembled corrugated plates to reinforce diseased culverts. Through engineering applications, numerical simulations, and [...] Read more.

In response to the increasing structural damage, reduced load-bearing capacity, and diminished durability of heavy-haul railway culverts under heavy axle load transportation conditions, this study focuses on the application of assembled corrugated plates to reinforce diseased culverts. Through engineering applications, numerical simulations, and field tests, the research investigates reinforcement techniques, analyzes parameter influences, and evaluates effectiveness. The results demonstrate that the integration of corrugated plates with existing culverts forms a composite structure, enhancing overall stiffness by sharing loads. Under identical conditions of corrugation height, pitch, and grout layer thickness, arc-shaped corrugated plates exhibit smaller mid-span deflections and stresses compared to triangular and rectangular profiles, with arc-shaped plates showing superior reinforcement performance. The sensitivity analysis results indicate that the waveform is the most sensitive parameter affecting the reinforcement performance. With the waveform fixed, the corrugation height has a relatively significant influence on the reinforcement effectiveness, followed by the corrugation pitch, while the influence of the grout layer thickness is negligible. Field trials on 14 diseased culverts with varying spans demonstrate that corrugated plate reinforcement reduces mid-span deflections and steel reinforcement strains by an average reduction exceeding 40%, with deflection reductions slightly outpacing strain reductions. These findings validate the substantial effectiveness of corrugated plate reinforcement in heavy-haul railway culvert rehabilitation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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23 pages, 3923 KB

Open AccessArticle

Progressive-Collapse Robustness Assessment of Existing Reinforced Concrete Buildings in Diverse Geographical Regions Using the Tie-Force Method

by Saffet Kılıçer and Sebahat Temuçin Kılıçer

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1090; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051090 - 9 Mar 2026

Viewed by 353

Abstract

This study evaluates the resistance of existing reinforced concrete buildings to progressive collapse using the Tie-Force Method specified in UFC 4-023-03. Five multi-storey residential reinforced concrete buildings in different regions are analysed. In situ rebar scanning and Schmidt hammer tests revealed existing reinforcement [...] Read more.

This study evaluates the resistance of existing reinforced concrete buildings to progressive collapse using the Tie-Force Method specified in UFC 4-023-03. Five multi-storey residential reinforced concrete buildings in different regions are analysed. In situ rebar scanning and Schmidt hammer tests revealed existing reinforcement layouts and concrete strengths (14–26 MPa). From the measured geometries, material properties and design loads, the required peripheral, longitudinal–transverse and vertical tie forces are calculated and converted into equivalent reinforcement areas. The results show that none of the investigated buildings satisfies all tie-force requirements with its current detailing. In particular, approximately 40% of the total Ø12 reinforcement required for the most critical peripheral ties in the other functional areas is concentrated in a single building. For longitudinal and transverse ties within the slab plane, additional Ø12 bars are required, especially along the most unfavourable grid lines in large-span panels. Vertical tie demands are modest and can generally be met with about 1–7 Ø16 bars in the selected columns. The findings indicate that, in the investigated sample, tie-force deficiencies appear to be governed more by design era and structural layout than by geographic location, and that strengthening slab-plane ties is critical for improving progressive-collapse resistance in the investigated buildings. In typical existing RC frame buildings, tie-force inadequacy is governed primarily by slab-plane ties rather than by vertical ties and the variation in required tie reinforcement across buildings is controlled more by design era and plan-geometry/floor-load characteristics than by geographic location. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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29 pages, 3520 KB

Open AccessArticle

AUEX: A Neuroscience-Integrated Framework for Evaluating and Designing Wellness-Supportive Short Auditory Cues in Enclosed Built Environments

by Shenghua Tan, Ziqiang Fan, Zhiyu Long, Renren Deng, Zihao Li and Pin Gao

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1089; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051089 - 9 Mar 2026

Viewed by 293

Abstract

Short auditory cues in enclosed built environments (such as elevator calls, access control, navigation, and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) notifications) influence not only usability but also stress and perceptions of well-being in daily indoor life. However, acoustic research remains largely focused [...] Read more.

Short auditory cues in enclosed built environments (such as elevator calls, access control, navigation, and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) notifications) influence not only usability but also stress and perceptions of well-being in daily indoor life. However, acoustic research remains largely focused on physical properties, and the psychophysiological impact of such short auditory cues remains under-quantified. To address this gap, a neuroscience-based evaluation approach, the Acoustic User Experience and Emotion (AUEX) model, is proposed. This model integrates functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), electrodermal activity (EDA), and the User Experience Questionnaire (UEQ). With 33 in-cabin prompt sounds as a controlled typology of short auditory cues in an enclosed setting, we set up a simulated interaction experiment with 20 participants in a driving simulator vehicle cabin to investigate the relationship between acoustic properties and cognitive load, arousal, and user experience. The results show that timbre is the key factor, which was correlated positively with overall UX (r = 0.414) and negatively with prefrontal ΔHbO (CH3: r = −0.368; l-DLPFC: r = −0.449), indicating a decrease in cognitive load and a relaxed affective state. Conversely, high-frequency signals improved pragmatic quality but increased physiological arousal, which negatively affected hedonic assessment. To facilitate the translation of evaluation results into practice, we also completed a design phase that converted the AUEX results into scenario-based parameter targets and prototype designs for functional, warning, and brand/affective cues, illustrating how evidence-based relationships can be translated into design-ready outputs for enclosed built environments. These results confirm the AUEX approach as a transferable method for designing short auditory cues for well-being and provide parameter-level implications for therapeutic and human-centered sound design in smart buildings, intelligent vehicles, and other enclosed built environments. Overall, the AUEX approach provides a transferable evaluation-to-design workflow for short auditory cues in enclosed interactive contexts; however, direct generalization from a single controlled vehicle cabin setting to real-world building environments should be validated through future field studies. Accordingly, the present findings are positioned as evidence from a controlled enclosed case rather than universal conclusions for all enclosed spaces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Art and Design for Healing and Wellness in the Built Environment: 2nd Edition)

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29 pages, 10745 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Machine Learning-Based Multi-Objective Optimization and Decision Support Framework for Age-Friendly Outdoor Activity Spaces

by Hui Wang, Rui Zhang, Ling Jiang, Lu Zhang and Guang Yang

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1088; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051088 - 9 Mar 2026

Viewed by 317

Abstract

Thermal comfort and adequate sunlight exposure are essential for maintaining the health of older adults. Although multi-objective optimization (MOO) has been increasingly applied to improve environmental performance in spatial design, most existing studies still rely on computationally expensive physical simulations, and their optimization [...] Read more.

Thermal comfort and adequate sunlight exposure are essential for maintaining the health of older adults. Although multi-objective optimization (MOO) has been increasingly applied to improve environmental performance in spatial design, most existing studies still rely on computationally expensive physical simulations, and their optimization results often lack interpretability and operability in early design decision-making. To address these issues, this study proposes a collaborative optimization framework that integrates machine learning surrogate models with neural visualization tools to support performance-driven design of age-friendly outdoor spaces at the early stage. Based on survey data from 46 typical Beijing communities, we constructed a parametric model with three objectives: minimizing summer UTCI, maximizing winter UTCI, and maximizing sunlight duration. An XGBoost model is adopted as a surrogate to accelerate performance prediction, while a self-organizing map (SOM) was applied to cluster and visualize Pareto-optimal solutions. The results indicate that the surrogate model achieves high predictive accuracy and reduces overall computational time by approximately 45% compared with conventional physical simulations. Moreover, the SOM-based visual decision process compresses the high-dimensional solution space and reduces candidate schemes by more than 90%, enabling rapid identification of design solutions that balance environmental performance and spatial morphology. The proposed framework improves both computational efficiency and decision support capacity for performance-oriented spatial design and provides a novel methodological reference for the environmental renewal of age-friendly outdoor spaces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

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38 pages, 4779 KB

Open AccessReview

Research on Thermal Comfort in Low-Pressure and Hypoxic Environments at High Altitudes: A Bibliometric Analysis Based on CiteSpace

by Yuanyuan Zhu, Kaiqiang Yang, Meixing Guo, Mingzhu Fang, Lingyu Wang, Hairui Wang, Xingyun Yan, Bin Chen, Jie Hu and Qingqing Li

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1087; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051087 - 9 Mar 2026

Viewed by 326

Abstract

High-altitude environments characterized by low air pressure, hypoxia, and strong solar radiation have a significant impact on human thermal comfort; however, existing thermal comfort theories and evaluation models are primarily developed under low-altitude climatic conditions, and their applicability in plateau regions remains limited. [...] Read more.

High-altitude environments characterized by low air pressure, hypoxia, and strong solar radiation have a significant impact on human thermal comfort; however, existing thermal comfort theories and evaluation models are primarily developed under low-altitude climatic conditions, and their applicability in plateau regions remains limited. With the acceleration of urbanization and the increase in residential, tourism, and occupational activities in high-altitude areas, systematically reviewing the research progress on thermal comfort in such environments is of great practical significance. This study combines systematic literature retrieval and bibliometric analysis, based on the Web of Science Core Collection and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) databases, to analyze relevant studies published since 2001. Using CiteSpace, research hotspots, collaboration networks, and evolutionary trends are visualized. The results indicate that current research hotspots mainly focus on physiological responses and thermal adaptation mechanisms under low-pressure and hypoxic conditions, thermal comfort regulation strategies for high-altitude buildings and environments, and the applicability and modification of conventional thermal comfort models. Emerging trends include multi-environmental factor coupling analysis, adaptive model development, region-specific building design approaches, and health-oriented comprehensive evaluation frameworks. The findings provide valuable references for building thermal environment design, regional revision of thermal comfort evaluation standards, and policy-making in high-altitude regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)

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27 pages, 5601 KB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation Study on Seismic Performance of Square STSRC Column-Steel Beam Joints Incorporating Reclaimed Resin-Bonded Wood Fiber Concrete

by Yan Dai, Xinxin Niu, Jingrong Peng, Kailong Xiao, Youxi Wang, Yutao Luo and Yinbo Bi

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1086; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051086 - 9 Mar 2026

Viewed by 269

Abstract

To advance the application of Reclaimed Resin-Bonded Wood Fiber Concrete (RRWFC) in steel tube-confined steel-reinforced concrete (STSRC) structures, this study designed six hybrid joint specimens comprising square STSRC columns with RRWFC concrete and steel beams. A numerical analysis model was developed using ABAQUS [...] Read more.

To advance the application of Reclaimed Resin-Bonded Wood Fiber Concrete (RRWFC) in steel tube-confined steel-reinforced concrete (STSRC) structures, this study designed six hybrid joint specimens comprising square STSRC columns with RRWFC concrete and steel beams. A numerical analysis model was developed using ABAQUS finite element software. The hysteretic behavior, stress distribution, failure modes, and energy dissipation capacity of the joints were investigated. Parametric studies examined the influence of four key variables on seismic performance: wood fiber replacement ratio, internal steel reinforcement configuration, joint region height, and axial compression ratio. The results show that the joints exhibit complete hysteretic curves and favorable energy dissipation capacity. Their stress distribution and failure modes conform to the strong column–weak beam–stronger joint principle of seismic design. Furthermore, a tri-linear skeleton curve model and restoring force model were established for the joints. These findings provide a robust theoretical foundation and practical computational models for implementing RRWFC in seismic-resistant structural systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Experiment and Simulation Techniques in Engineering)

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26 pages, 24257 KB

Open AccessArticle

Selection of Optimal Vector-Valued Intensity Measures for Seismic Fragility Analysis in Shield Tunnels Based on LSTM Neural Networks

by Jinghan Zhang, Meng Zhang, Tao Du and Yang Wang

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1085; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051085 - 9 Mar 2026

Viewed by 204

Abstract

This research introduces a novel approach for seismic fragility assessment by employing a long short-term memory (LSTM) neural network to identify the most effective scalar and vector intensity measures (IMs). This approach enables the rapid and accurate plotting of vector fragility surfaces for [...] Read more.

This research introduces a novel approach for seismic fragility assessment by employing a long short-term memory (LSTM) neural network to identify the most effective scalar and vector intensity measures (IMs). This approach enables the rapid and accurate plotting of vector fragility surfaces for shield tunnels embedded in layered soils and subjected to seismic actions. First, an extensive suite of two-dimensional, fully nonlinear soil–structure interaction analyses was executed to generate ground–motion–structure response pairs. These records were subsequently leveraged to train the LSTM network, which received free-field acceleration time histories and directly output critical engineering demand parameters along the tunnel lining. The developed framework significantly mitigates computational expenses while maintaining an acceptable level of fidelity relative to the reference finite element results. Consequently, it serves as an alternative to traditional time history evaluation techniques. Second, we conducted an IM screening process using the results of the LSTM predictions. On the basis of criteria such as relevance, efficiency, practicality, and professionalism, we benchmarked 17 scalar IM and 3 vector IM candidate schemes. The findings indicate that the peak ground velocity (PGV) serves as the most effective scalar IM, whereas the combination of peak ground acceleration (PGA) and PGV forms the optimal vector IM. Finally, probabilistic demand and capacity models are integrated within a fully analytical fragility formulation to derive both scalar and vector fragility estimates. Comparative evaluation reveals that vector IM based fragility surfaces markedly reduce epistemic uncertainty and furnish refined probabilistic descriptions of damage states (DSs) across the seismic demand space. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Computational Methods in Structural Engineering)

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44 pages, 2081 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Digital Twins Across the Asset Lifecycle: Technical, Organisational, Economic, and Regulatory Challenges

by Kangxing Dong and Taofeeq Durojaye Moshood

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1084; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051084 - 9 Mar 2026

Viewed by 819

Abstract

The construction industry faces persistent challenges in productivity, efficiency, and sustainability. Digital twin (DT) technology has emerged as a promising pathway for lifecycle optimisation, yet its construction adoption remains limited. Key barriers include fragmentation across project phases, weak data continuity at handover, and [...] Read more.

The construction industry faces persistent challenges in productivity, efficiency, and sustainability. Digital twin (DT) technology has emerged as a promising pathway for lifecycle optimisation, yet its construction adoption remains limited. Key barriers include fragmentation across project phases, weak data continuity at handover, and conceptual ambiguity between DT and Building Information Modelling (BIM). This systematic literature review analyses 160 peer-reviewed studies (2018–2026) selected from 463 Scopus records using a PRISMA-guided process and inter-rater reliability testing (Cohen’s κ = 0.83). The review clarifies that DTs extend beyond BIM in three ways: they enable bidirectional, automated physical-digital data exchange; integrate heterogeneous real-time sources such as IoT sensors and operational systems; and maintain lifecycle continuity from design through to end-of-life. Select advanced implementations report notable performance gains. These include rework and logistics reductions of up to 80%, cost savings of approximately 5%, schedule acceleration of around two months, energy reductions of 15–30%, and maintenance cost reductions of 10–25%. These figures reflect case-level outcomes from high-performing pilots and should not be read as typical industry benchmarks. Broader adoption remains constrained by interoperability gaps, data quality challenges, digital maturity deficits, misaligned stakeholder incentives, and paper-based regulatory environments. DTs represent a socio-technical transformation, not a standalone technology upgrade. Realising their potential requires coordinated progress in standards development, governance frameworks, collaborative delivery models, and workforce capability. Future research should focus on scalable interoperability, longitudinal lifecycle value validation, human-centred adoption strategies, and sustainability assessment methods to support evidence-based diffusion of DTs in the built environment. Full article

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32 pages, 7948 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Performance Analysis of a Fluid Viscous Inerter Damper and Evaluation of Its Control Effect on Structural Responses

by Tianlong Wang, Shixuan Yang, Xiangyu Shi, Xun’an Zhang and Zhaohui Cai

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1083; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051083 - 9 Mar 2026

Viewed by 228

Abstract

The development of high-efficiency energy dissipation devices is crucial for mitigating the significant threat posed by seismic loads to modern buildings. Therefore, the purpose of this work is to design a novel fluid viscous inerter damper (FVID) and systematically investigate its mechanical performance [...] Read more.

The development of high-efficiency energy dissipation devices is crucial for mitigating the significant threat posed by seismic loads to modern buildings. Therefore, the purpose of this work is to design a novel fluid viscous inerter damper (FVID) and systematically investigate its mechanical performance through theoretical derivations, experiments, and finite element simulations. Furthermore, the impact of FVIDs on the seismic performance of structures is comprehensively evaluated. The advantage of FVID is that under external excitation, the fluid can flow through multiple channels, thereby generating inertial and damping forces to dissipate energy. The theoretical model of FVID’s output force is determined based on FVID’s construction and fluid flow characteristics. The hysteresis performance of the FVID is evaluated through cyclic loading tests, and the influence of the cross-sectional radius and number of turns of the helical tube on its output force is analyzed. By performing finite element simulations of the internal flow field of FVID, the distributions of fluid pressure and velocity at different positions within FVID are analyzed. Based on Simulink, the focus is on investigating the control effect of FVID on structural responses under non-pulse near-field ground motions, pulse-type near-field ground motions, and far-field ground motions. The results indicate that the FVID has a strong energy-dissipation capacity and can effectively reduce structural responses under different types of earthquakes. The cross-sectional radius of the helical tube is a key design parameter that determines the damper’s output force. For highly destructive pulse-type near-field ground motions, FVIDs still exhibit excellent comprehensive performance in the structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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23 pages, 4243 KB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Earth Pressure Model Tests of SPSC-AC Structure for Railway Slopes Under Simulated Train Loading

by Kai Guo, Mingxin Zheng, Dong Li, Yuchao Zeng and Yujie Chen

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1082; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051082 - 9 Mar 2026

Viewed by 235

Abstract

This paper investigates earth pressure and load transfer of a novel Surrounding Pile Soil Coupling–Anti-slide Chord (SPSC-AC) structure for railway slope reinforcement under dynamic train loading through physical model experiments. The study systematically analyzes the synergistic effects of the connecting beam rise-to-span ratio [...] Read more.

This paper investigates earth pressure and load transfer of a novel Surrounding Pile Soil Coupling–Anti-slide Chord (SPSC-AC) structure for railway slope reinforcement under dynamic train loading through physical model experiments. The study systematically analyzes the synergistic effects of the connecting beam rise-to-span ratio (f/L) and anchoring ratio (η) on the structural load redistribution mechanism and pile–soil interaction. The results show that the SPSC-AC structure forms a three-dimensional (3-D) soil arch via the curved connecting beams. The inter-row earth pressure follows a pattern of rear row > middle row > front row, while the earth pressure on corner piles exhibits a reverse increase owing to the soil arching effect. The rear pile thrust sharing ratio δ (0.58–0.68) and the pile–soil stress ratio n (1.16–1.37) are defined as two key performance parameters reflecting load distribution efficiency, and quantitative δ–f/L and δ–η relationships are established. The bending moment distribution along the pile body corresponds closely with the earth pressure pattern. Based on these results, the present study proposes optimal parameter ranges (f/L ∈ [1/4, 1/3] and η ∈ [5/11, 7/13]) along with recommendations for corner pile strengthening and differential stiffness design. These findings provide a theoretical basis for optimal anti-slide structure design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Reinforcement Technologies Applied in Slope and Foundation)

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17 pages, 8255 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Synthetic C-S-H Seeds on the Early-Age Hydration and Mechanical Properties of Cement–Titanium Slag Composites

by Weizhe Wu, Lei Yu, Shuang Wang, Yuntao Xin, Shuping Wang, Zhigang Zhang and Guanwu Zeng

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1081; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051081 - 9 Mar 2026

Viewed by 291

Abstract

The large-scale accumulation of titanium-extraction tailing slag (TS) poses environmental concerns, while its application is constrained by high impurity contents and low hydraulic reactivity, which is further exacerbated by the necessary dechlorination process. This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of synthetic calcium [...] Read more.

The large-scale accumulation of titanium-extraction tailing slag (TS) poses environmental concerns, while its application is constrained by high impurity contents and low hydraulic reactivity, which is further exacerbated by the necessary dechlorination process. This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of synthetic calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) nanocrystals in improving the performance of cement pastes incorporating deeply dechlorinated TS (DD-TS). To ensure uniform dispersion and activity, C-S-H seeds with varying crystallinities (55–94%) were prepared via a dynamic hydrothermal method (180 °C for 1–3 h) and incorporated into the composite binder in a wet-powder form at dosages of 0.5–2.0%. Results indicate that C-S-H-1, with the lowest crystallinity, offered the highest efficiency. At 1.5% dosage, the 1 d compressive strength increased by 64.6% to 18.6 MPa, while the initial setting time decreased by approximately 40%. Microstructural analyses reveal that poorly crystalline C-S-H provides abundant nucleation sites, accelerating early hydration and densifying the matrix to levels comparable to 7 d control pastes. These findings demonstrate the potential of C-S-H seeding for enhancing the utilization of DD-TS in cement-based materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Nanotechnology in Building Materials)

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7 pages, 157 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Advances in Modern Structural Engineering: From Materials to Building Structures

by Zhihua Chen, Yiyi Zhou, Hongbo Liu and Hai Zhang

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1080; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051080 - 9 Mar 2026

Viewed by 329

Abstract

Driven by the development of engineering technology, the “dual carbon” goal, and the construction of urban resilience, modern structural engineering is undergoing comprehensive innovation [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Modern Structural Engineering: From Materials to Building Structures)

17 pages, 4035 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cooling Strategies for the Effective Mitigation of Summer Thermal Stress in City Laneways

by Priyadarsini Rajagopalan, Jean Jonathan Duverge, Andrew Carre and Mary Myla Andamon

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1079; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051079 - 9 Mar 2026

Viewed by 290

Abstract

This study explored a range of cooling interventions suitable for city laneways where space for greening opportunities is constrained. Five individual cooling interventions namely, PVC shading, cool pavement, small canopy trees, green wall and water mist, as well as multiple combinations of these [...] Read more.

This study explored a range of cooling interventions suitable for city laneways where space for greening opportunities is constrained. Five individual cooling interventions namely, PVC shading, cool pavement, small canopy trees, green wall and water mist, as well as multiple combinations of these individual cooling interventions were tested in a narrow laneway in the temperate setting of Melbourne, Australia. The impact of various cooling interventions was assessed by evaluating microclimatic parameters—air temperature (T_a), relative humidity (RH), mean radiant temperature (T_MRT)—alongside two thermal comfort indices, Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET) and Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI). When each intervention was analysed individually, water mist was the best performing with T_a, PET and UTCI reduction. This was followed by PVC shading, small canopy trees and green walls. Cool pavement had the lowest T_a reduction and minimal thermal comfort impact. While green provided marginal reductions in thermal comfort indices, the effects were insufficient for standalone cooling. They were most effective when integrated with other cooling interventions. For example, when green walls were combined with water mist, a T_a reduction of 1.49 K and a T_MRT reduction 2.57 K were obtained. The water mist system as an individual cooling intervention or as part of a combined intervention had an impact on T_a with a reduction of maximum 1.3 K and 1.76 K, respectively. The water mist had a UTCI reduction of 1.25 K, and the water mist combined with green wall had a PET reduction of 1.84 K. The novel contribution of this study to climate-sensitive urban design is the suite of practical, site-specific interventions for extreme summer conditions. These findings provide a framework for planners and designers to evaluate and implement optimal cooling strategies tailored to the unique microclimate demands of narrow urban laneways. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Performance-Based Urban Design: Integrated Urban Analytics, Simulation and Climate-Responsive Design)

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21 pages, 7026 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Mechanical Properties and Interfacial Interaction Mechanism of Nano-SiO₂-Modified Expanded Polystyrene Lightweight Concrete

by Chen Zhao, Fang Xing, Yong Feng, Longteng Lv, Ziyang Kou and Lijvan Li

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1078; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051078 - 9 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 344

Abstract

Expanded polystyrene (EPS) foam concrete is attractive for lightweight building applications, yet its practical use is often limited by weak EPS–cement interfacial bonding, which promotes interfacial debonding and crack propagation and thereby compromises mechanical performance. Although nano-SiO₂ (NS) has been reported to [...] Read more.

Expanded polystyrene (EPS) foam concrete is attractive for lightweight building applications, yet its practical use is often limited by weak EPS–cement interfacial bonding, which promotes interfacial debonding and crack propagation and thereby compromises mechanical performance. Although nano-SiO₂ (NS) has been reported to improve EPS–cement compatibility, the interfacial strengthening mechanism is still not fully clarified across scales, especially the molecular-level interactions that govern the formation of a robust interfacial transition zone (ITZ). Herein, EPS particles were modified with NS and a multi-scale framework (macro tests, micro-characterization, and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations) was employed to establish a mechanistic linkage between interfacial chemistry/structure and macroscopic performance. The results show that an optimal NS dosage of 9% (by cement mass) increases the 28-day compressive strength and flexural strength of EPS concrete by up to 18.3% and 11.2%, respectively, compared with the unmodified system. SEM, XRD, and FTIR collectively indicate a denser interfacial microstructure, increased hydration-product accumulation near the EPS surface, refined interfacial porosity, and the occurrence of condensation-related reactions involving NS. MD simulations further reveal that NS facilitates the formation of molecular bridges between EPS and C–S–H through hydrogen bonding and ionic interactions, which enhances interfacial adhesion and contributes to improved ITZ thermal stability. This study provides a cross-scale mechanistic understanding for designing high-performance EPS foam concrete via targeted interfacial engineering. MD simulations further suggest that NS enhances interfacial bonding by increasing the occurrence of hydrogen-bond networks and ionic associations at the EPS/C–S–H interface, as evidenced by the intensified interaction-related distributions and peaks in the simulation outputs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Building Materials)

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20 pages, 6015 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design-Driven Reconfiguration of Spatial Hierarchy in Adaptive Reuse: A Visibility-Based Plan-Level Analysis of an Industrial-to-Hotel Conversion

by Onur Suta and Mehmet Fatih Aydin

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1077; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051077 - 9 Mar 2026

Viewed by 294

Abstract

Adaptive reuse projects frequently involve substantial plan-level reorganization; however, the reconfiguration of spatial hierarchy within interior layouts remains insufficiently examined at the building scale. Background: This study investigates how spatial hierarchy is restructured during the adaptive reuse of an industrial building converted into [...] Read more.

Adaptive reuse projects frequently involve substantial plan-level reorganization; however, the reconfiguration of spatial hierarchy within interior layouts remains insufficiently examined at the building scale. Background: This study investigates how spatial hierarchy is restructured during the adaptive reuse of an industrial building converted into a hotel, focusing on configurational implications of program-driven design decisions within unchanged architectural boundaries. Methods: Visibility-based Space Syntax analyses were conducted using visual integration, connectivity, and mean depth measures. Rather than relying on floor-level averages, a control-point-based comparative protocol enabled systematic pre- and post-intervention comparisons linked to plan-level architectural interventions under identical analytical parameters. Results: The findings indicate selective amplification of spatial accessibility and visual integration at defined circulation nodes on the ground floor, while upper floors exhibit contraction of visibility fields and increased relational depth. These shifts indicate a floor-specific redistribution of spatial hierarchy rather than uniform configurational transformation. Conclusions: The results suggest that spatial transformation in adaptive reuse can be interpreted as a design-driven recalibration of configurational relationships within fixed architectural boundaries. Without pursuing statistical generalisation, the study proposes a case-bound analytical protocol that may inform examination of comparable adaptive reuse contexts where program transformation occurs within stable spatial envelopes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

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34 pages, 8947 KB

Open AccessArticle

Lightweight Evidential Time Series Imputation Method for Bridge Structural Health Monitoring

by Die Liu, Jianxi Yang, Lihua Chen, Tingjun Xu, Youjia Zhang, Lei Zhou and Jingyuan Shen

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1076; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051076 - 9 Mar 2026

Viewed by 353

Abstract

Long-term data loss resulting from sensor malfunctions, communication interruptions, and other factors in Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) significantly undermines the reliability of damage identification and safety assessment. Existing methods—ranging from statistical approaches and low-rank matrix completion to traditional machine learning and deep learning [...] Read more.

Long-term data loss resulting from sensor malfunctions, communication interruptions, and other factors in Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) significantly undermines the reliability of damage identification and safety assessment. Existing methods—ranging from statistical approaches and low-rank matrix completion to traditional machine learning and deep learning imputation techniques—often suffer from either limited accuracy or excessive model size and slow inference, making deployment in resource-constrained scenarios difficult. To address these challenges, this paper proposes TEFN–Imputation, a lightweight and efficient time-series imputation model. This model utilizes observation-driven non-stationary normalization to mitigate the impact of time-varying characteristics and dimensional discrepancies. It employs linear projection for temporal length alignment and constructs BPA-style mass representations from dual perspectives of time and channel. Furthermore, it replaces strict Dempster–Shafer belief combination with an expectation-based evidential aggregation (readout), thereby significantly reducing computational overhead while enabling uncertainty-aware evidential indicators for interpretation rather than claiming a direct accuracy gain from uncertainty modeling. The observed accuracy and robustness improvements are primarily attributed to the normalization and dual temporal–channel modeling design under the same lightweight readout. Systematic experiments on two real-world bridge monitoring datasets, Z24 and Hell Bridge, demonstrate that TEFN consistently maintains low Mean Absolute Error (MAE) and minimal volatility across various combinations of training and testing missing rates, exhibiting high robustness against variations in missing rates and train–test mismatches. Concurrently, compared to RNN and large-scale Transformer baselines, TEFN reduces parameter count and CPU inference time by one to two orders of magnitude. Thus, it achieves a superior trade-off among accuracy, efficiency, and model scale, making it highly suitable for online SHM and imputation tasks in practical engineering applications. Across the settings on Z24, TEFN achieves a mean MAE of 0.218 with a standard deviation of 0.002, while using only 0.02 MB parameters and 2.73 ms per batch CPU inference. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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35 pages, 16949 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bottom-Up Approach to Spatial–Temporal Mapping of Urban Community-Scale Carbon Emissions: A Case Study in Guangzhou, China

by Lin Liu, Zefeng Liang, Hanwen Zhang, Jing Liu, Qing Wu and Shiping Chen

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1075; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051075 - 8 Mar 2026

Viewed by 289

Abstract

This study develops a bottom-up carbon emission accounting framework at the urban community scale and applies it to 642 communities in Guangzhou, China, using the Local Climate Zone (LCZ) classification. Carbon emissions from buildings, transportation, water use, waste, and urban road lighting, together [...] Read more.

This study develops a bottom-up carbon emission accounting framework at the urban community scale and applies it to 642 communities in Guangzhou, China, using the Local Climate Zone (LCZ) classification. Carbon emissions from buildings, transportation, water use, waste, and urban road lighting, together with green space carbon sinks, are quantified to establish a high-resolution spatiotemporal emission dataset. The results show that total community-scale carbon emissions range from 0 to 5852.88 tCO₂, with building-related emissions dominating the carbon footprint and accounting for approximately 75% of the total emissions, followed by water use (15%) and waste (8%), while transportation and road lighting together contribute less than 3%. Building and transportation emissions exhibit pronounced temporal variability, with citywide building emissions peaking at 21:00 (994.6 tCO₂ h⁻¹). Strong spatial heterogeneity is observed across LCZ types and administrative districts. LCZ1 records the highest total emissions (60,401.71 tCO₂), whereas LCZ6 exhibits substantially lower emissions due to greater green space coverage. Spatial autocorrelation analysis reveals significant clustering of high-emission communities (Global Moran’s I = 0.2486, p < 0.0001), indicating an outward diffusion of carbon emissions from central urban areas. These findings demonstrate the role of building energy use in carbon emissions and validate LCZ-based bottom-up accounting for mitigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synergistic Interactions Between Urban Climate and Building Energy System)

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22 pages, 2729 KB

Open AccessArticle

Polymer-Modified Fiber-Reinforced Electrically Conductive Composites with Enhanced Bond Properties

by Abdulkader El-Mir, Mohammad Ghamlush, Joseph J. Assaad, Amr El-Dieb and Hilal El-Hassan

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1074; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051074 - 8 Mar 2026

Viewed by 346

Abstract

This study examines the combined effects of styrene–butadiene rubber (SBR) latex and fiber reinforcement on the mechanical and electrical properties of a high-performance fiber-reinforced composite (HPFRC). Mixtures incorporating steel fibers (SF, 0–4.5%), carbon fibers (CF, 0–1%), and hybrid SF/CF systems were evaluated, with [...] Read more.

This study examines the combined effects of styrene–butadiene rubber (SBR) latex and fiber reinforcement on the mechanical and electrical properties of a high-performance fiber-reinforced composite (HPFRC). Mixtures incorporating steel fibers (SF, 0–4.5%), carbon fibers (CF, 0–1%), and hybrid SF/CF systems were evaluated, with 10–20% of the mixing water replaced by SBR. Electrical resistivity, rheological behavior, mechanical properties, and durability-related parameters were assessed and compared with plain and fiber-reinforced mixtures. Results showed that SBR significantly improved rheological behavior, flexural performance, durability, and interfacial bonding, while moderately enhancing compressive strength. The incorporation of fibers led to reduced electrical resistivity, with CF being more effective than SF, and the lowest resistivity of 4 Ω·m was achieved using a hybrid system of 0.25% CF and 1.5% SF. The addition of SF up to 1.5% increased compressive strength by up to 21%, whereas CF at 0.5% yielded the highest strength of 120 MPa. Durability indicators, including water absorption, sorptivity, and ultrasonic pulse velocity, were significantly improved at low SBR and fiber dosages. Interfacial treatment with SBR enhanced slant shear and pull-off strengths by up to 75% and 121%, respectively, confirming the effectiveness of polymer modification for multifunctional and repair-oriented HPFRC applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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15 pages, 1685 KB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Performance Optimization of Trombe Walls: A Comprehensive Experimental Study in Cold Regions

by Shimeng Wang, Jianing Wang, Yan Tian, Huiju Guo, Yi Zhai, Qun Zhou, Hiroatsu Fukuda and Yafei Wang

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1073; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051073 - 8 Mar 2026

Viewed by 348

Abstract

In cold regions with prolonged subzero temperatures and abundant solar radiation, Trombe walls serve as high-efficiency passive solar building envelopes for improving indoor thermal comfort. This study aims to optimize the thermal performance of Trombe walls via a multimodal data analysis framework and [...] Read more.

In cold regions with prolonged subzero temperatures and abundant solar radiation, Trombe walls serve as high-efficiency passive solar building envelopes for improving indoor thermal comfort. This study aims to optimize the thermal performance of Trombe walls via a multimodal data analysis framework and a multiview measurement algorithm. Three distinct Trombe wall configurations were constructed and continuously monitored for 60 consecutive days under typical winter conditions (average temperature: −15 °C; solar radiation intensity: 800–1100 W/m²). Field-measured datasets, including solar radiation intensity, hourly air temperature distribution, and heat exchange efficiency, were systematically analyzed to quantify the impacts of ventilation mode, air gap width, and insulation thickness on thermal performance. The results demonstrate that the hourly peak surface temperature of the optimized Trombe wall reaches 25.7 °C at 13:00, which significantly improves indoor thermal comfort compared with conventional buildings. An air gap width of 6 cm minimizes indoor temperature fluctuations (fluctuation coefficient = 0.08), while a 20 mm insulation layer stabilizes heat loss reduction at 31.1% relative to non-insulated walls. The optimal operational parameter combination (6 cm air gap, 16 °C indoor set temperature) was determined based on the lowest temperature fluctuation and highest thermal efficiency, with experimental results deviating by less than 5% from established analytical models. This study verifies the reliability of the multimodal data analysis framework for Trombe wall performance evaluation, providing practical design guidelines for passive solar building envelopes in cold regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)

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25 pages, 8895 KB

Open AccessArticle

Residual Axial Resistance of Cross-Shaped Steel-Reinforced Concrete Columns After Impact Loading: Experimental and Numerical Investigations

by Yongwei Guo, Xiang Zhu, Wenbo Li and Guangze Lei

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1072; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051072 - 8 Mar 2026

Viewed by 194

Abstract

To investigate how lateral impact influences the residual axial resistance capacity of cross-shaped steel-reinforced concrete (CSRC) columns, the residual axial resistance test was carried out following impact test. A finite element model (FEM) was developed to simulate axial and lateral impact loading, and [...] Read more.

To investigate how lateral impact influences the residual axial resistance capacity of cross-shaped steel-reinforced concrete (CSRC) columns, the residual axial resistance test was carried out following impact test. A finite element model (FEM) was developed to simulate axial and lateral impact loading, and its accuracy was confirmed through comparison with test results. The analysis shows that the numerical model can simulate the impact force, deflection, deformation mode and residual axial resistance of the column with adequate accuracy. With the verified finite element models, the residual axial resistance (N_r) of CSRC columns under six different parameters was further analyzed. Results demonstrate that the column primarily undergoes flexural deformation under impact, whereas shear effects are localized at the impact zone. A higher structural steel ratio (α) and yield strength of the cross-shaped steel (q) contribute to improved N_r and reduced mid-span displacement (Δ_max). With the increase in compressive strength of concrete (c) and axial compression ratio (n), the N_r increases to a certain level and then decreases, and the Δ_max decreases first and then increases in a similar manner. The change in slenderness ratio (γ) in a small range can improve the N_r of the column, and the significant increase in γ results in instability and failure. In particular, when the slenderness ratio increases from 8 to 12, the residual bearing capacity of the column decreases by 19.4%. This study proposes a residual bearing capacity-prediction formula based on seven key influencing parameters, which shows high accuracy (R² = 0.93). A damage evaluation index based on flexural bearing capacity (D_dag) is introduced, and the structural state is accordingly classified into four damage levels. Compared with conventional numerical simulations that typically require more than 3 h of computation time, the proposed method can rapidly complete the damage assessment of columns within 5 min, providing an efficient approach for structural safety evaluation and response strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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20 pages, 284 KB

Open AccessArticle

Reporting of Work-Related Stress: Disclosure Hesitancy Among a Sample of Construction Managers in Ireland

by Patrick Bruce, Niamh Hickey, Victor Hrymak, Carol Bruce and Patricia Mannix McNamara

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1071; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051071 - 8 Mar 2026

Viewed by 362

Abstract

Workplace stress in the construction sector is noted to have poor implications for employees and work procedures. Although workplace stress is discussed extensively in the literature, reporting of workplace stress-related matters remains relatively unexplored. This research explored the experiences of reporting stress-related issues [...] Read more.

Workplace stress in the construction sector is noted to have poor implications for employees and work procedures. Although workplace stress is discussed extensively in the literature, reporting of workplace stress-related matters remains relatively unexplored. This research explored the experiences of reporting stress-related issues among a sample of construction managers in Ireland. The study adopted an interpretative qualitative approach, comprising semi-structured interviews with twenty-five construction managers. The data were examined using interpretative phenomenological analysis. All participants reported experiencing various workplace stressors in construction settings. They expressed a strong hesitancy to report their experiences of workplace stress caused by these stressors, and reasons for disclosure hesitancy included fear, stigma, and possible repercussions. The inability to report these stressors exacerbated the issue and created a deep sense of mistrust, which resulted in low productivity and absences from work. Disclosure hesitancy of workplace stress undermines efforts to build safe, equitable, and inclusive construction workplaces by rendering a noteworthy occupational hazard invisible. When construction managers are reluctant to report work-related stress, organisations may remain unaware of both its presence and its impact, allowing stress-related risks to persist unaddressed. This lack of disclosure can effectively shield organisations from accountability in cases of litigation or regulatory enforcement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Safe, Equitable, and Inclusive Construction Workplaces for the Future)

17 pages, 2179 KB

Open AccessArticle

Machine Learning-Assisted Analysis of Fracture Energy in Externally Bonded Reinforcement on Groove Bond Strength Prediction

by Bahareh Mehdizadeh, Pouyan Fakharian, Younes Nouri, Mohammad Afrazi and Bijan Samali

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1070; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051070 - 8 Mar 2026

Viewed by 239

Abstract

The tensile capacity of a connection is predicted through the use of established models, among which the bond behavior between CFRP layers and concrete is always considered. In structures reinforced with CFRP, the prediction of the bond force between concrete and CFRP is [...] Read more.

The tensile capacity of a connection is predicted through the use of established models, among which the bond behavior between CFRP layers and concrete is always considered. In structures reinforced with CFRP, the prediction of the bond force between concrete and CFRP is essential, as the connection must be designed to withstand the required tensile capacity. An underestimation can lead to inefficient design, while an overestimation risks premature debonding failure, potentially compromising structural safety and serviceability. In recent applications, the bond force between concrete and CFRP has been increased through the use of the Externally Bonded Reinforcement on Groove (EBROG) method. However, due to the structural complexity introduced by the grooved interface, accurate prediction of its bond strength remains challenging, and conventional analytical models may not fully capture the underlying nonlinear interactions. In this technique, CFRP layers are placed into grooves to enhance the interaction among the adhesive, concrete, and CFRP. However, due to the structural complexity of this connection, accurate prediction of its bond force is challenging and requires the application of artificial intelligence methods. This study develops a machine learning (ML) framework to predict the bond strength of the EBROG technique. Four ML models, Support Vector Machine (SVM), Gaussian Process Regression (GPR), Decision Tree, and XGBoost, were implemented, and their hyperparameters were optimized via Bayesian optimization. The models were evaluated using multiple statistical metrics, with the XGBoost algorithm demonstrating superior predictive performance, achieving an R² of 0.987 and an RMSE of 0.522 kN. This represents an improvement of approximately 5.6% in R² and a reduction of over 53% in RMSE compared to the existing analytical model. SHAP analysis provided interpretable, data-driven insights, revealing that fracture energy is the predominant factor governing bond strength and elucidating nonlinear interactions between key design parameters. This ML-fracture mechanics framework not only offers superior prediction but also advances the mechanistic understanding of the EBROG bond behavior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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20 pages, 3095 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Temperature Changes on the Experimental Modal Analysis of a Galvanized Steel Benchmark Structure

by Sertaç Tuhta, Varol Koç and Furkan Günday

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1069; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051069 - 8 Mar 2026

Viewed by 252

Abstract

The effect of temperature change on modal frequencies leads to erroneous results in the detection of structural damage. Therefore, quantifying the temperature dependency of modal frequencies is essential to improve the reliability of damage identification. Due to the irregular and time-dependent nature of [...] Read more.

The effect of temperature change on modal frequencies leads to erroneous results in the detection of structural damage. Therefore, quantifying the temperature dependency of modal frequencies is essential to improve the reliability of damage identification. Due to the irregular and time-dependent nature of temperature distribution, reliable correlations between air or surface temperatures and modal frequencies cannot be established. In this study, the dynamic behavior of a galvanized steel benchmark structure was investigated at two controlled temperature levels (2 °C and 32 °C) using experimental modal analysis (EMA). The structure was excited using a shaking table, while ambient vibration signals recorded at ground level were used as pre-recorded excitation input to the shaking table. Modal parameters were identified using Enhanced Frequency Domain Decomposition (EFDD). The results showed that mode shapes remained consistent across temperature levels, whereas natural frequencies decreased by an average of 2.43%. The identified dynamic parameters exhibited an approximately linear trend with temperature change. These findings highlight the importance of considering temperature effects in experimental modal analysis of galvanized steel structures to avoid false damage detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Health Monitoring in Civil Engineering: From Damage Detection to Safety Assessment)

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19 pages, 1259 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Flow Balance Index-Based Method for Evaluating the Balance Degree of Flow Allocation in Heating Networks

by Bing Sun, Jigang Li, Wenhao Li and Yongjiang Shi

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1068; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051068 - 8 Mar 2026

Viewed by 201

Abstract

To address the critical issue of uneven flow allocation in district heating systems, this paper proposes a novel, systematic evaluation framework centered on the Flow Balance Index. The basic approach transforms discrete actual flow rates of users across the entire network into a [...] Read more.

To address the critical issue of uneven flow allocation in district heating systems, this paper proposes a novel, systematic evaluation framework centered on the Flow Balance Index. The basic approach transforms discrete actual flow rates of users across the entire network into a continuous, normalized flow allocation curve. By analytically examining the geometric concavity of this curve, the overall imbalance level of the system is intuitively captured, which is further quantitatively represented by calculating the Flow Balance Index. The primary innovation of this method lies in shifting from local, point-based deviation metrics to a global, mathematical quantification of flow distribution balance by calculating the area of allocation deviation. To verify the effectiveness of this method, a parameterized branched heating network was constructed, simulating ideal balance, mild imbalance, and severe imbalance conditions. Within these simulated scenarios, the calculated Flow Balance Index successfully differentiated the varying degrees of global imbalance, yielding specific values of 0.16, 0.46, and 0.91, respectively. The results demonstrate that this method provides both an intuitive identification tool and an objective, scale-independent quantitative target for refined flow regulation strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Built Environment Engineering: Ventilation, Air Conditioning, and Heating Technology)

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22 pages, 907 KB

Open AccessReview

High-Fidelity Numerical Models and Reduced-Order Models in the Thermal and Thermomechanical Analyses of Timber Beams Under Fire—A Review

by Ezequiel Menegaz Meneghetti, Victor Almeida De Araujo, Fernando Júnior Resende Mascarenhas, Sérgio Neves Monteiro, Afonso Rangel Garcez de Azevedo and André Luis Christoforo

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1067; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051067 - 8 Mar 2026

Viewed by 302

Abstract

Timber beams have assumed a prominent role in contemporary structural engineering, driven by sustainability requirements and the advancement of engineered wood products. Despite the evident environmental and building advantages, the performance of timber beam elements under fire conditions remains one of the main [...] Read more.

Timber beams have assumed a prominent role in contemporary structural engineering, driven by sustainability requirements and the advancement of engineered wood products. Despite the evident environmental and building advantages, the performance of timber beam elements under fire conditions remains one of the main design challenges, due to the strong nonlinearity of thermal behavior, progressive charring, and degradation of mechanical properties. In this context, numerical simulations have become a central tool for the thermal and thermomechanical assessment of timber beams exposed to fire. This study presents a technical and critical review of numerical approaches applied to timber beam elements, with emphasis on finite element–based models, thermal modeling strategies, representation of charring, thermomechanical coupling, and the use of reduced-order and surrogate models. The distinctive contribution of this work lies in an integrated and critical analysis of these approaches, explicitly articulating high-fidelity numerical models with reduced-order and symbolic models, aiming at their use as complementary tools in structural design. The analysis was conducted thematically, based on literature selected from major international databases, emphasizing modeling assumptions, levels of numerical complexity, and methodological limitations. The results indicate a predominance of transient finite element (FEM) models, widespread use of two-dimensional cross-sectional analyses, increasing adoption of enthalpy-based formulations for charring, and a prevalence of sequential thermomechanical coupling strategies. In contrast, the literature reveals strong heterogeneity in thermal parameters, limited standardization of validation procedures, restricted use of probabilistic approaches, and still incipient integration of reduced-order and symbolic models. It is concluded that future advances in the field depend on the standardization of modeling strategies, the expansion of thermal property databases, and, above all, the integration of high-fidelity models with interpretable reduced-order models, capable of supporting parametric analyses and performance-based structural design methodologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Timber Engineering: Design, Modification Techniques, Durability, Modeling and Sustainability)

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20 pages, 5329 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparative Study of Outdoor Thermal Comfort in Centralized Traditional Organic and Modern Standardized Rural Settlements

by Yiming Du, Anxiao Zhang, Qi Zhen, Shen Wei, Ling Zhu and Yixin Tian

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1066; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051066 - 7 Mar 2026

Viewed by 316

Abstract

Global warming has significantly intensified the risks of summer heatwaves, making outdoor thermal comfort during extreme heat periods a critical research focus. Under centralized rural village reconstruction policies, traditional settlements are being replaced by regularized modern communities characterized by new materials and standardized [...] Read more.

Global warming has significantly intensified the risks of summer heatwaves, making outdoor thermal comfort during extreme heat periods a critical research focus. Under centralized rural village reconstruction policies, traditional settlements are being replaced by regularized modern communities characterized by new materials and standardized layouts. However, the impact of these morphological transitions on the micro-scale thermal environment remains under-researched, with a notable lack of comparative perspectives between traditional organic and modern standardized typologies. This study identifies six representative zones based on spatial configuration. By integrating UAV photogrammetry (Pix4Dmapper v4.5), AutoCAD 2019, and QGIS (v3.22), morphological characteristics were quantified, followed by microclimate simulations using ENVI-met v5.9. The results reveal that while peak daytime Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET) in the standardized zones (49.2–51.8 °C) is slightly lower than in traditional zones (53.5–55.2 °C), a phenomenon of thermal homogenization emerges in the former. Specifically, values in standardized zones are highly concentrated around the median (53.5 °C), contributing to a significant upward trend in the minimum PET values, with nearly all sampling points exceeding 47.0 °C. Quantitative analysis identifies green coverage and perviousness as primary cooling drivers, while spatial openness and imperviousness promote thermal homogenization. In contrast, traditional zones retain critical cool refuges due to their spatial heterogeneity. This research provides an empirical foundation and quantitative reference for understanding the thermal performance differences across different rural spatial typologies. The findings offer insights for planners to optimize street layouts and shading strategies, ultimately mitigating heat stress and fostering climate-resilient modern countryside development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency and Thermal Comfort in Green Buildings)

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24 pages, 557 KB

Open AccessArticle

Home for Every Age: Rethinking Senior–Child Co-Living Through Universal and Inclusive Smart Residential Design

by Yen-Cheng Chen, Ching-Sung Lee, Jo-Lin Chen, Pei-Ling Tsui, Mei-Yi Tsai and Bo-Kai Lan

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1065; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051065 - 7 Mar 2026

Viewed by 425

Abstract

Smart home technologies are increasingly integrated into residential environments jointly inhabited by older adults and young children. However, existing research remains largely ageing-centered and insufficiently addresses the governance challenges arising from generational asymmetries in vulnerability, spatial agency, and authority within shared domestic space. [...] Read more.

Smart home technologies are increasingly integrated into residential environments jointly inhabited by older adults and young children. However, existing research remains largely ageing-centered and insufficiently addresses the governance challenges arising from generational asymmetries in vulnerability, spatial agency, and authority within shared domestic space. Rather than merely complicating design, these asymmetries fundamentally reshape how safety, autonomy, access, and surveillance are structured in everyday residential practice. This study reconceptualizes senior–child intergenerational co-living as a governance-oriented socio-technical system in which generational asymmetry functions as a structuring principle of design prioritization. An expert-based decision framework integrating interdisciplinary focus groups and the Analytic Hierarchy Process was developed to evaluate five design dimensions and thirty indicators. The findings reveal a differentiated priority structure in which intelligent safety, accessibility, and risk governance together with spatial integration and technological accessibility constitute the foundational architecture of inclusive intergenerational housing, while interaction-oriented functions receive comparatively lower weights. By embedding generational asymmetry within a formal hierarchical evaluation model, this study extends smart housing scholarship beyond ageing-centered optimization and provides a structured decision-support logic for inclusive multi-generational residential design aligned with the objectives of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly those promoting inclusive communities and health equity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Universal and Age-Friendly Design in Urban and Rural Built Environment Creation)

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18 pages, 5426 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating Building Information Modeling with Logistic Chain: A Case Study of a Material Management System for Modular Construction

by Lijun Liu, Yilei Huang, Yuhan Jiang and Zhili Gao

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1064; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051064 - 7 Mar 2026

Viewed by 356

Abstract

To continuously improve the efficiency of the construction project delivery process, various innovative methods and technologies have been developed and adopted in the past decades. Among these methods, modular construction has become a popular option due to its short on-site installation time generated [...] Read more.

To continuously improve the efficiency of the construction project delivery process, various innovative methods and technologies have been developed and adopted in the past decades. Among these methods, modular construction has become a popular option due to its short on-site installation time generated by off-site prefabrication. However, the process of modular construction requires a highly integrated system to accurately connect multiple phases, including material packaging, transportation logistics, locating and tracking, and on-site installation. Accordingly, this process typically poses a significant challenge for contractors to efficiently manage the materials needed for daily tasks. This paper introduces a construction material management system that integrates every phase from off-site packaging to on-site installation. The integrated system was developed based on Logistic Chain and Building Information Modeling (BIM) using a three-layer framework, namely material packaging, inventory management, and material locating and tracking. The new system utilizes recent innovative technologies for transparent consolidation and highly efficient operation of off-site inventory management and on-site visualization. The developed system was further examined in a real-world case study project. The material handling time was then analyzed and compared with benchmark data without using the integrated system. The results indicated that the newly developed system was able to effectively reduce the time of locating materials and the rate of missing materials during on-site installation. In addition, this case study project added value to the verification of the broader system’s capabilities for inventorying, tracking, and visualizing construction materials. The findings of this project provide valuable knowledge and insight into improving construction efficiency through an integrated material management system. Future research is needed to expand the applicability of multiple framework designs and assess the cost–benefit analysis for production-scale and commercial use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Information Modelling (BIM) Applications in Construction Management: 2nd Edition)

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