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Volume 16
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Buildings, Volume 16, Issue 4 (February-2 2026) – 202 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): During construction, various on-site photographs are captured and stored, but their purpose is often limited to simply assessing the on-site situation. These photographs are extremely convenient to obtain and provide valuable information on the progress of construction, so their utilization should be increased throughout the construction period. The construction progress simulated in a 4D system represents the planned completion status, while on-site photographs represent the actual completion status at that point in time. By detecting and synchronizing two images taken at the same point in time using object detection techniques and calculating the degree of overlap between the two images, the actual progress can be roughly compared to the planned progress. View this paper
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28 pages, 2891 KB  
Article
Electrical Resistivity-Based Prediction of Corrosion-Affected Areas in Reinforced Concrete
by Vince Evan T. Agbayani, Seong-Hoon Kee, Cris Edward F. Monjardin and Kevin Paolo V. Robles
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 886; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040886 - 23 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 463
Abstract
This study investigates the development of a predictive model in simulations for assessing steel corrosion in determining corrosion-affected zones in reinforced concrete. A series of reinforced concrete cubes with varying degrees of corrosion were tested using a four-probe Wenner configuration. The experimental data [...] Read more.
This study investigates the development of a predictive model in simulations for assessing steel corrosion in determining corrosion-affected zones in reinforced concrete. A series of reinforced concrete cubes with varying degrees of corrosion were tested using a four-probe Wenner configuration. The experimental data showed a clear inverse relationship between ER and steel mass loss, with a strong negative correlation, highlighting the potential of ER as a corrosion indicator. A third-degree polynomial model was developed to predict the diameter of the corrosion-affected region based on steel mass loss and concrete cover, achieving high predictive accuracy. This model was validated using numerical simulation conducted in COMSOL Multiphysics, which replicated the experimental setup under steady-state conditions. Parametric studies further examined the effects of electrical conductivity (σ) and electrode spacing on the simulated results. The findings confirm that while σ has a moderate impact, electrode spacing significantly influences the measured ER values. The study underscores the importance of incorporating variable parameters into simulation models to improve the accuracy and field applicability of ER-based corrosion assessments. Furthermore, the simulation framework developed in this study demonstrates how numerical modeling can enhance the interpretive value of ER measurements, supporting the advancement of non-destructive testing techniques aimed at improving corrosion monitoring and maintenance strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Construction Materials: Corrosion, Prevention and Protection)
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18 pages, 21276 KB  
Article
Impact of Architecture Façade Design on Neurophysiological Stress Using Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Heart Rate Variability
by Cleo Valentine, Ian Hosking, Arnold J. Wilkins, Heather Mitcheltree, Cameron Smith, Emilia Butters and Olivier Penacchio
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 885; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040885 - 23 Feb 2026
Viewed by 902
Abstract
Within industrialised and emerging industrialised economies people typically spend over 95% in industrialised and emerging industrialised economies typically spend over 95% of their time in built environments, yet the neurophysiological impact of architectural design remains poorly understood. While previous studies link visual patterning [...] Read more.
Within industrialised and emerging industrialised economies people typically spend over 95% in industrialised and emerging industrialised economies typically spend over 95% of their time in built environments, yet the neurophysiological impact of architectural design remains poorly understood. While previous studies link visual patterning to cortical activity, the cortical-to-autonomic stress pathway remains largely unexplored—a key omission given that chronic stress contributes to allostatic overload. This study examined how architectural façade design influences neurophysiological stress through a multimodal approach combining functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to monitor occipital cortical activity with heart rate variability (HRV) as an index of autonomic regulation. Eighteen participants provided HRV data and subjective ratings for nine systematically varied façade images characterised by their deviation with respect to natural statistics, while a subset of twelve completed fNIRS recording due to signal acquisition constraints. Façade identity significantly affected discomfort, complexity, and interest ratings (p<0.001), and deviation from natural statistics predicted all three measures (p<0.01). Façade type also showed a small but significant effect on HRV (p=0.003), although variance was dominated by individual differences. No stimulus-specific occipital fNIRS differences were observed. However, due to the limited sample size, further research is needed to verify this observed result. Whilst global generalisations cannot be drawn due to the small sample size, these pilot research findings indicate that façades deviating from natural image statistics influence perceptual comfort and may modestly modulate autonomic balance. However, the present data does not provide clear evidence of stimulus-specific cortical effects, which, if present, likely remain below the detection thresholds of the current protocol given its methodological constraints. This study highlights methodological hurdles and establishes a scalable framework for linking computational visual metrics to physiological responses, informing future investigations into how architectural features influence human health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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17 pages, 2143 KB  
Article
The Impact of Oil Shale Ash on the Mechanical Properties of Cement Mortar as a Partial Cement Substitute for Sustainable Buildings
by Walid Fouad Edris, Heba M. Mhedat, Mahmoud Al-Tamimi, Ahmed D. Almutairi, Abd Al-Kader A. Al Sayed and Tarek Ibrahim Selouma
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 884; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040884 - 23 Feb 2026
Viewed by 454
Abstract
This research intends to investigate and analyze the usage of Jordanian oil shale ash (OSA) as a replacement material for ordinary Portland cement and pozzolanic cement in mortar. To start, oil shale was collected from the Wadi Al-Shallala location, crushed, sieved and burned [...] Read more.
This research intends to investigate and analyze the usage of Jordanian oil shale ash (OSA) as a replacement material for ordinary Portland cement and pozzolanic cement in mortar. To start, oil shale was collected from the Wadi Al-Shallala location, crushed, sieved and burned at 800 °C for 24 h. OSA partially replaced the ordinary Portland and pozzolanic cements with ratios of 10%, 20%, and 30%. This research looked into the effect of cement substitution on the standard consistency and hardening time for cement paste. The water contents as well as beginning and final hardening times increased due to the higher replacement ratios of the cements. Also, pozzolanic activity index (PAI) along with scanning electron microscope (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) testing and mechanical properties (compressive and flexural strengths) of mortar with both types of cement substitution were evaluated. The compressive strength and flexural strength were checked following 3, 7, 14, 28, 56 and 90 days of curing, while (SEM) was conducted just at 28 days old with a 20% replacement ratio in mortar specimens. Results show that 20% OSA substitution for ordinary Portland cement or Pozzolanic cement raises compressive strength and flexural strength, plus provides better morphology. Thus, oil shale is seen as a natural pozzolanic material that increases efficiency in cement mixtures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Composite Materials for Sustainable Construction)
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16 pages, 9530 KB  
Article
Noise Propagation and Mitigation in High-Rise Buildings Under Urban Traffic Impact
by Shifeng Wu, Yanling Huang, Qingchun Chen and Guangrui Yang
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 883; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040883 - 23 Feb 2026
Viewed by 484
Abstract
Urban traffic noise poses escalating environmental challenges in rapidly urbanizing regions with high-density buildings, yet systematic investigations into its spatiotemporal characteristics remain relatively scarce. This study addresses this research gap via the synchronized on-site monitoring of traffic noise and traffic flow on a [...] Read more.
Urban traffic noise poses escalating environmental challenges in rapidly urbanizing regions with high-density buildings, yet systematic investigations into its spatiotemporal characteristics remain relatively scarce. This study addresses this research gap via the synchronized on-site monitoring of traffic noise and traffic flow on a representative arterial road in Guangzhou, China. The analysis reveals that nighttime equivalent continuous A-weighted sound levels (LAeq) are 3.0–4.0 dB(A) higher than those during the congested daytime peak, a phenomenon primarily driven by higher vehicle speeds under nighttime free-flow traffic conditions. The spatial analysis uncovers complex three-dimensional noise propagation dynamics specific to urban street canyons. Vertical profiling demonstrates a counterintuitive pattern where noise levels do not attenuate with building height, and upper floors experience marginally higher noise exposure than the ground floor, which is attributed to the canyon effect, where multiple sound wave reflections offset the natural distance attenuation. A validated three-dimensional computational model was further employed to evaluate the efficacy of noise mitigation strategies, showing that an integrated intervention combining porous asphalt pavement and acoustic barriers achieves a maximum noise attenuation of 19.9 dB(A) at ground-level receptors. This significant reduction stems from a synergistic effect: porous asphalt reduces noise at the source on a global scale, while acoustic barriers provide localized shielding for the lower floors of adjacent buildings. This research concludes that effective traffic noise control in high-density urban areas requires three-dimensional, multi-faceted strategies addressing noise source characteristics, transmission pathways, and receptor vulnerabilities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Prediction and Mitigation of Building Vibrations and Noise: Integrating Safety and Sustainability)
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26 pages, 5896 KB  
Article
Experimental Study on Axially Loaded Reinforced Concrete Columns Strengthened with Steel Cage
by Aleksandar Landović, Anka Starčev-Ćurčin, Miloš Šešlija and Danijel Kukaras
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 882; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040882 - 23 Feb 2026
Viewed by 397
Abstract
The presented study investigates the structural behavior of reinforced concrete (RC) columns strengthened using an external steel cage and an additional concrete infill layer. An experimental program was conducted on short RC columns subjected to axial compressive force. A total of eleven columns [...] Read more.
The presented study investigates the structural behavior of reinforced concrete (RC) columns strengthened using an external steel cage and an additional concrete infill layer. An experimental program was conducted on short RC columns subjected to axial compressive force. A total of eleven columns were tested, including five plain RC and six strengthened specimens. The objective of the research was to evaluate the load-bearing capacity, failure mechanisms, and composite interaction between the steel cage, the infill concrete, and the original RC column. Two different distances between battens were considered in order to evaluate whether the number of batten plates significantly influences the efficiency of strengthening. The experimental results show that the proposed strengthening technique leads to an increase in axial capacity compared to unstrengthened specimens. Also, the variation in batten spacing within the investigated range has a negligible effect on the ultimate load. Failure was governed by cracking and bond deterioration in the infill layer, followed by progressive loss of composite action. The results indicate that the strengthening performance is primarily controlled by the properties of the infill concrete and the confinement mechanism, rather than by the spacing of the steel battens. The application of EN 1994-1-1 and EN 1998-3 in predicting the axial capacity of strengthened columns showed a good relation between experimental results and code calculations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Rehabilitation and Strengthening Techniques for Reinforced Concrete)
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17 pages, 1120 KB  
Article
Professional Perceptions of Integrated Project Delivery in Brazil: Conceptual Dissonance Between Governance Innovation and Technological Adoption
by Paula Heloisa da Silva, Nathalia de Paula, Érik Poirier, Sergio Scheer and Silvio Burrattino Melhado
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 881; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040881 - 22 Feb 2026
Viewed by 305
Abstract
Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) is a collaborative approach proposed to address fragmentation and performance issues in the AEC industry, yet its adoption remains limited. This study examines Brazilian professionals’ perceptions of IPD and identifies the barriers, challenges, and enablers associated with it. Drawing [...] Read more.
Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) is a collaborative approach proposed to address fragmentation and performance issues in the AEC industry, yet its adoption remains limited. This study examines Brazilian professionals’ perceptions of IPD and identifies the barriers, challenges, and enablers associated with it. Drawing on a survey and a systematic review, the findings indicate that although benefits such as improved collaboration are recognized, concerns about contractual feasibility, shared risks, and organizational readiness persist. Technological aspects are seen as more familiar than contractual or managerial changes, diverging from international empirical evidence, which typically identifies contractual and governance-related challenges as the primary barriers to IPD adoption. The study reveals both shared global challenges and unique Brazilian issues, particularly regarding implementation complexity. Adoption depends more on organizational and contractual preparedness than on technology, informing strategies for introducing collaborative models in emerging markets. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 20th International Conference on Computing in Civil and Building Engineering (ICCCBE 2024))
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31 pages, 2971 KB  
Systematic Review
Additive Manufacturing as an Enabler of Lean Construction: A Systematic Literature Review
by Hind Jebbouri, Anas Chafi and Salaheddine Kammouri Alami
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 880; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040880 - 22 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 375
Abstract
Additive manufacturing (AM) has been increasingly explored in the construction sector for its potential to improve productivity, reduce waste, and enable design flexibility; however, reported outcomes remain inconsistent, and the relationship between AM and Lean Construction (LC) principles is not yet clearly established. [...] Read more.
Additive manufacturing (AM) has been increasingly explored in the construction sector for its potential to improve productivity, reduce waste, and enable design flexibility; however, reported outcomes remain inconsistent, and the relationship between AM and Lean Construction (LC) principles is not yet clearly established. This study addresses this gap through an exploratory, theory-building systematic review of 12 peer-reviewed research articles published between 2021 and 2025, examining AM technologies applied in construction, their associated application contexts, Lean principles, performance indicators, and implementation barriers. A mixed quantitative and qualitative analysis was conducted, combining descriptive bibliometric mapping with thematic synthesis to answer three research questions related to AM applications, Lean impacts, and performance measurement. Given the emerging nature of AM–LC integration and the limited number of eligible studies, the review prioritizes conceptual synthesis over empirical generalization. The results suggest that AM contributes primarily to waste reduction, process efficiency, standardization, and built-in quality when integrated with complementary digital and automation technologies. Nevertheless, significant technical, economic, socio-organizational, and regulatory barriers persist, limiting scalability and performance consistency. Based on the synthesized evidence, the study proposes a conceptual framework that interprets AM adoption as a Lean-oriented production system, where barriers act as system-level constraints and enablers function as Lean improvement mechanisms. This study further conceptualizes AM implementation as a Kaikaku-driven transformation that requires Kaizen-based stabilization through established LC tools. These insights contribute to advancing theoretical understanding of AM–LC integration and guide more effective and systematic implementation in construction projects. Full article
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29 pages, 3516 KB  
Systematic Review
Renewable Energy Integration for Net-Zero Buildings: Challenges, Opportunities, and Strategic Pathways
by Mohammad Omar Alfadil, Mukhtar A. Kassem and Ramez A. Al-Mansob
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 879; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040879 - 22 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 627
Abstract
Buildings account for nearly 40% of global energy use and 36% of CO2 emissions, positioning Net-Zero Energy Buildings (NZEBs) as vital for climate mitigation. However, large-scale adoption remains limited by technical, economic, and policy barriers. This study systematically reviews 1285 peer-reviewed articles [...] Read more.
Buildings account for nearly 40% of global energy use and 36% of CO2 emissions, positioning Net-Zero Energy Buildings (NZEBs) as vital for climate mitigation. However, large-scale adoption remains limited by technical, economic, and policy barriers. This study systematically reviews 1285 peer-reviewed articles (2015–2025) from Scopus and Web of Science, following PRISMA guidelines and thematic analysis to assess renewable energy integration and efficiency strategies. Results indicate that 70% of studies highlight emissions reduction and cost savings as key NZEB benefits, while 60% cite high storage costs and 45% report grid integration challenges. Only 30% of studies address policy dependency, revealing a research gap. Effective measures include passive solar design (up to 25% heating load reduction), high-performance envelopes (15–40% energy savings), and smart energy management (10–20% efficiency gains). Persistent obstacles involve high upfront costs, renewable variability, and rapid technological obsolescence. Achieving NZEB viability requires integrating energy-efficient design, affordable renewables, advanced storage, and coherent policy frameworks to accelerate the transition toward a sustainable, NZEB-built environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart and Sustainable Buildings: Advancing Towards Net-Zero and Intelligent Control)
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19 pages, 3852 KB  
Article
Evaluating Dynamic Reaction Forces at Anchorages to Enhance the Safety of Mast Climbing Work Platforms
by Xueyan S. Xu, Christopher M. Warren, Robert S. White, John Z. Wu, Francois Villeneuve, Ren G. Dong and Christopher S. Pan
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 878; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040878 - 22 Feb 2026
Viewed by 308
Abstract
Mast climbing work platforms (MCWPs) are designed to vertically access building facades and other structures to perform various construction tasks. The mast in an MCWP system is structurally considered “slender”, its anchorages to the building play an important role in maintaining its stability. [...] Read more.
Mast climbing work platforms (MCWPs) are designed to vertically access building facades and other structures to perform various construction tasks. The mast in an MCWP system is structurally considered “slender”, its anchorages to the building play an important role in maintaining its stability. Failure of anchorages can affect overall structural stability, potentially increasing the risk of the mast collapsing. The anchorages and their attachments to a construction structure are likely among the most critical components for the MCWPs. This study developed an instrumented anchorage using strain gauges to measure and understand the anchorage reaction forces and to identify the major factors for the measurement of those forces. In the experiment, a single mast work platform was used at a simulated work site. Besides the anchoring reaction forces, the vibration motions on the platform were also measured. The study found that the amount of the load on the platform, the position of the load on the platform, and the platform’s vertical position on the mast may all affect the reaction forces on the anchorages. Such effects varied with the specific anchorages installed at different heights of the mast. The dynamic forces on the anchorages were correlated to the platform vibrations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Transformation in Construction: Advancing Leadership, Safety, Human–Machine Collaboration, and Sustainable Innovation)
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27 pages, 7372 KB  
Article
A Multidimensional Assessment Framework for Urban Green Perception Using Large Vision Models and Mixed Reality
by Jingchao Wang, Yuehao Cao, Ximing Yue and Lulu Wang
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 877; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040877 - 22 Feb 2026
Viewed by 298
Abstract
Accurately assessing urban green perception is crucial for sustainable urban development and human well-being, yet conventional approaches often depend on simplistic objective metrics and non-immersive, screen-based subjective surveys, undermining ecological validity. This study develops and validates a multidimensional assessment framework that integrates Large [...] Read more.
Accurately assessing urban green perception is crucial for sustainable urban development and human well-being, yet conventional approaches often depend on simplistic objective metrics and non-immersive, screen-based subjective surveys, undermining ecological validity. This study develops and validates a multidimensional assessment framework that integrates Large Vision Models (LVMs) and Mixed Reality (MR) to couple objective environmental features with immersive human perception. The framework comprises 30 objective and 6 subjective indicators; state-of-the-art LVMs including DINOv2 and Depth Anything were applied to accurately extract objective features from Street View Imagery (SVI); and the MR device, Meta Quest 3, was utilized for the immersive collection of high-quality subjective data. In an empirical study with 74 volunteers in Shenzhen, China, machine learning models trained on MR-based data achieved 20–50% higher R2 for subjective perception than models trained on traditional screen-based data. The validated framework was then applied to 61,131 SVIs citywide to map the spatial distribution of multidimensional green perception and to quantify relationships between objective and subjective indicators. Going beyond technical validation, this study demonstrates how the framework serves as a critical tool for urban planning and landscape upgrading. By diagnosing perceptual deficits where greening quantity does not translate into quality experiences, the framework supports a paradigm shift from quantity-oriented greening to perception-oriented spatial optimization. These findings offer actionable insights for policymakers to prioritize interventions that effectively enhance public health and environmental equity in high-density cities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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37 pages, 6774 KB  
Article
Evaluating WELL-Informed Biophilic Façades in Automated Retail Environments: A Multimodal Eye-Tracking and Facial Expression Analysis
by Jie Yun and Nayeon Kim
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 876; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040876 - 22 Feb 2026
Viewed by 515
Abstract
Global urbanization redirects attention toward the sensory quality of the built environment as a decisive factor in public health and psychological resilience. In automated retail, façades function as sensory interfaces to mitigate the psychological alienation and sensory deprivation inherent in automated nodes. This [...] Read more.
Global urbanization redirects attention toward the sensory quality of the built environment as a decisive factor in public health and psychological resilience. In automated retail, façades function as sensory interfaces to mitigate the psychological alienation and sensory deprivation inherent in automated nodes. This preliminary study proposes and empirically validates a multimodal evaluation framework for assessing WELL-informed, AI-generated biophilic façade designs in automated retail contexts. Grounded in Environment-Based Design (EBD) theory, the framework systematically integrates health-oriented design logic with generative AI–based façade synthesis and multimodal human-response evaluation. To evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed methodology, this study pursued three specific objectives: (1) to utilize a curated series of architectural façade variations with calibrated biophilic complexity derived from an environment-based AI generative framework, as experimental stimuli, (2) to quantify subconscious responses represented by gaze patterns and behavioral indicators elicited by these configurations, and (3) to analyze the correlation and potential divergence between implicit physiological responses and explicit conscious aesthetic appraisals. The multimodal experiment involving 30 participants integrated eye-tracking, facial expression analysis, and Semantic Differential (SD) scales. Area of Interest (AOI)-based visual attention analysis indicated that biophilic complexity, particularly the integration of organic patterns and natural materials, significantly enhanced subconscious visual interest and sustained engagement within specific design zones. The findings unveiled a complexity–aesthetic paradox where subconscious physiological and behavioral indicators exhibited peak engagement with high-complexity patterns while conscious aesthetic preference favored material-driven structural clarity. Statistical verification via repeated measures correlation analysis revealed a lack of significant linear association between instinctive physiological engagement and explicit aesthetic appraisal, highlighting a notable divergence between implicit and explicit responses. In conclusion, grounded in an EBD–driven evaluation framework, this research establishes a systematic evaluation methodology for health-conscious design, recommending a material-first strategy with pattern as an enhancement to align subconscious fascination with psychological comfort. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural Design Innovations for Health and Wellness: Leveraging AI and Digital Technologies)
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22 pages, 3040 KB  
Article
Prefabricated Co-Working Spaces’ Window Design: Emotional Salience Scale-Based Optimisation
by Antonio Ciervo, Massimiliano Masullo, Luigi Maffei, Roxana Adina Toma, Maria Dolores Morelli and Michelangelo Scorpio
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 875; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040875 - 22 Feb 2026
Viewed by 457
Abstract
Windows are key elements of the building’s system; they connect workers with the outdoor environment, influence daylight penetration, sound insulation, and thermal exchanges of façades, but they also moderate the workers’ well-being and productivity. This research investigates how the window-to-wall ratio, as well [...] Read more.
Windows are key elements of the building’s system; they connect workers with the outdoor environment, influence daylight penetration, sound insulation, and thermal exchanges of façades, but they also moderate the workers’ well-being and productivity. This research investigates how the window-to-wall ratio, as well as the position and orientation of mullions, in movable offices affect the combination of workers’ perceptual and emotional responses. A smart co-working prefabricated movable office was modelled in virtual reality to include dynamic visual elements and acoustic stimuli. Experiments were performed in a laboratory under controlled thermal conditions involving 32 volunteers. The Igroup Presence and Emotional Salience Questionnaires were used to collect subjective responses. ANOVA analysis and post hoc test with the Bonferroni correction were used for data elaboration. Results revealed that window design affects emotional salience. High window-to-wall ratio and no mullions achieved the highest scores. Increasing the number of mullions, particularly when they obstruct key visual elements, reduced the positive emotional salience rating. Horizontal mullions diminish the outdoors’ spatial perception, interrupting visual continuity and restricting users’ capacity to recognise variations in the views. Finally, the results suggest some valuable insights and suggestions that can help designers improve window design and people’s well-being and satisfaction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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25 pages, 17627 KB  
Article
Assessing Human Emotional Responses to Urban Sound Environments: Evidence from Web Questionnaire and EEG Survey
by Neng Zhao, Weishi Li, Xiaoxia Wang, Lin Liu, Qing Wu and Wei Liao
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 874; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040874 - 22 Feb 2026
Viewed by 290
Abstract
The dominant sound sources in different urban spaces influence residents’ multidimensional emotional responses, and the interaction of various sound sources across temporal and spatial dimensions forms a complex sound environment. This study aims to develop a comprehensive index to quantify the emotional impacts [...] Read more.
The dominant sound sources in different urban spaces influence residents’ multidimensional emotional responses, and the interaction of various sound sources across temporal and spatial dimensions forms a complex sound environment. This study aims to develop a comprehensive index to quantify the emotional impacts of dominant sound sources. Through field measurements, this study classified the collected audios into four major categories (natural, social, construction, traffic) and 15 subcategories, with each sound source characterized by SPL and primary frequency. A total of 1266 questionnaires were collected from 209 participants through a web-based survey for the subjective experiment, while EEG data were obtained from 35 participants in the objective experiment. Next, by integrating acoustic indicators, subjective questionnaire responses, and objective EEG data, this study constructs the CK index using principal component analysis. CK provides a single, interpretable score of emotional impact, where lower values indicate greater calm. Results show that natural sounds consistently outperformed the other three sound types, showing the highest comfort (3.54) and pleasure (3.40) ratings on a five-point Likert scale, as well as the strongest physiological response with a parietal alpha power of 18.44 μV2/Hz. The calculated CK values for natural, social, construction, and traffic sounds were 8.73, 9.91, 10.20, and 10.29, respectively. This study contributes to quantifying the emotional impacts of urban sounds and refining noise mitigation priorities using the CK index. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Novel Tools and Methods for Climate-Adaptive Urban Development)
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25 pages, 1893 KB  
Systematic Review
Business Intelligence Tools in Organizations with a Focus on Power BI Applications in Civil Construction: A Systematic Literature Review
by Ornela Isbela Silva Zierz and Alberto Casado Lordsleem Junior
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 869; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040869 - 22 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1208
Abstract
Business Intelligence (BI) comprises methods and technologies for collecting, organizing, and analyzing data to support managerial decision-making. This study presents a systematic literature review with a two-tier scope: first, identifying the most widely adopted BI tools across organizational contexts, and second, examining the [...] Read more.
Business Intelligence (BI) comprises methods and technologies for collecting, organizing, and analyzing data to support managerial decision-making. This study presents a systematic literature review with a two-tier scope: first, identifying the most widely adopted BI tools across organizational contexts, and second, examining the specific application of Microsoft Power BI within the civil construction sector. The review followed the PRISMA guidelines and was complemented by the snowball sampling technique. A total of 81 articles published between 2015 and 2025 were analyzed to identify the most used tools, main application sectors, benefits, and challenges in BI adoption. The analysis combines descriptive bibliometric techniques with qualitative content analysis to examine publication trends, tools, application domains, and reported challenges. Results indicate that Power BI, Tableau, and Qlik Sense are the most frequent BI tools, with Power BI standing out for its integration with diverse data sources such as spreadsheets, databases, management software, and cloud platforms, enabling the creation of dashboards. The civil construction, business management, and manufacturing industries show the highest adoption rates, mainly for cost control, performance monitoring, and sustainability indicators. Reported benefits include operational efficiency, process automation, and improved decision-making. However, gaps remain regarding data standardization, interoperability, technological infrastructure, and user resistance. As a contribution, this review advances the existing literature by explicitly distinguishing general BI tool adoption from the sector-specific use of Power BI in civil construction, systematically classifying application domains and revealing limitations in maturity that remain underexplored in prior reviews. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in BIM-Based Technologies for Sustainable Building Performance Predictions)
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23 pages, 8571 KB  
Article
Audiovisual Modulation of Traffic Noise Effects on Psychological Restoration in Expressway-Adjacent Residential Environments: A Virtual Reality Study
by Tongfei Jin, Zhoutao Zhang and Yuhan Shao
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 873; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040873 - 21 Feb 2026
Viewed by 377
Abstract
Expressway traffic noise poses a critical threat to public health in developed high-density cities, causing chronic environmental stress in adjacent residential areas. While physical noise barriers are commonly used, the potential of audiovisual interactions in mitigating the adverse effects of traffic noise remains [...] Read more.
Expressway traffic noise poses a critical threat to public health in developed high-density cities, causing chronic environmental stress in adjacent residential areas. While physical noise barriers are commonly used, the potential of audiovisual interactions in mitigating the adverse effects of traffic noise remains under-explored. Using immersive virtual reality (VR), this study examined the efficacy of visual greenery and auditory masking (birdsong) in promoting stress recovery, and tested whether audiovisual perception mediates the environment–restoration link. Following an acute stressor, 100 participants were randomly assigned to a 2 × 2 between-subjects experiment manipulating Green View Index (high vs. low) and soundscape composition (traffic noise vs. traffic noise plus birdsong), with 25 participants in each group. Restorative outcomes were assessed using self-reported measures and continuous physiological monitoring (heart rate variability [HRV] and electrodermal activity [EDA]). Results demonstrated that high-intensity visual greenery and natural sounds effectively enhance psychological restoration in noise-affected environments. Structural equation modeling revealed that audiovisual perception fully mediated the relationship between environmental features and restorative outcomes. The physiological outcome showed a distinct tiered restoration pattern, indicating that immediate psychological buffering can be achieved through natural sounds, while consistent visual reinforcement remained essential for deep physiological recovery. Consequently, soundscape planning in expressway-adjacent zones should integrate visual greening strategies to optimize the perceptual masking of traffic noise and enhance the environmental quality. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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24 pages, 448 KB  
Article
Ascertaining the Reasons for Escalation of Disagreements over Extension of Time Assessments from Construction Delay Claims into Disputes
by Vasil Angelov Atanasov
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 872; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040872 - 21 Feb 2026
Viewed by 365
Abstract
Disputes over delay assessments are costly, persistent, prevalent worldwide, often funded by taxpayers, and negatively impact productivity in the construction sector. The identified academic literature argues that the main causes of the escalation of disagreements over delay assessments from contract claims into disputes [...] Read more.
Disputes over delay assessments are costly, persistent, prevalent worldwide, often funded by taxpayers, and negatively impact productivity in the construction sector. The identified academic literature argues that the main causes of the escalation of disagreements over delay assessments from contract claims into disputes (or factors) are objective factors, particularly unavailability and/or inadequacy of relevant project data. However, those findings are not based on comprehensive investigations of all factors involved, employing research methodologies that rely upon real-life project data. This article contributes to the fulfilment of the aforementioned knowledge gap. Published literature and twenty-one case studies were evaluated to identify the factors. The research findings revealed that although data-related issues were often important factors, they were not the main and/or most frequently identified ones. Subjective factors, including manipulation of programme activity completion dates, reliance on biased assumptions when data is unavailable, misinterpretation of material records, and self-serving delay analysis, were the main factors. The findings suggest that the root cause of this issue is the exploitation of systemic flaws, including the unavailability of good/best practice guidance on assessing the impact of delays, deficient contract provisions, inadequate impartiality, divergent priority of interests, unexploited technologies, and the confidential nature of dispute resolution methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the CIB WBC 2025—Sustainable Development and the Built Environment: Legal Challenges and Opportunities)
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21 pages, 6958 KB  
Article
Research on Temperature Modes and Parameter-Related Responses of Long-Span Asymmetric Cable-Suspended Structures
by Zengwu Liu, Wei Sun, Kunpeng Zhao, Chunyu Wang, Qinxi Dong, Guilin Li and Guangjun Ren
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 871; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040871 - 21 Feb 2026
Viewed by 254
Abstract
Cable-suspended structures are important auxiliary structures for the construction of long-span arch bridges. Due to topographic constraints, the cable-suspended structure of Liuchehe Bridge adopts an asymmetric structure form with a main span of 736 m. Nevertheless, research focusing on the mechanical behavior of [...] Read more.
Cable-suspended structures are important auxiliary structures for the construction of long-span arch bridges. Due to topographic constraints, the cable-suspended structure of Liuchehe Bridge adopts an asymmetric structure form with a main span of 736 m. Nevertheless, research focusing on the mechanical behavior of large-span asymmetric cable hoisting structures remains limited at present. Under unfavorable loads, including temperature and cable saddle friction, tower buckling failure may occur in cable hoisting structures as a result of overstress. In addition, inappropriate changes in physical parameters and temperature of the main cable will alter its sag and consequently compromise construction precision. For the sake of the safety of the cable hoisting structure, a temperature gradient experiment was conducted on the steel pipes of the prefabricated tower by virtue of a practical engineering project. The change rule of the measured point temperature was analyzed, a temperature gradient pattern for tower steel pipes was proposed, and the deficiencies of the specifications were compensated for. On this basis, the effects of variations in temperature, main cable weight, main cable elastic modulus, guy cable tension, and saddle friction resistance on the mechanical behavior of the cable-suspended structure were analyzed. According to the temperature tests on the tower steel pipes, the maximum radial temperature gradient of the steel pipe section reaches 15 °C, which is higher than the thermal gradient value stipulated in the codes. Moreover, the steel pipe stress under the thermal gradient model proposed in the current research is greater than that under the thermal gradient model in the codes. The steel tube stress under the temperature gradient model adopted in this study is 7.6 times that specified in the design code. Temperature and the elastic modulus of the main cable have a significant influence on the mid-span deformation of the main cable. For every 1 °C temperature variation, the vertical displacement at the main cable mid-span changes by 25 mm. During the construction of the main cable, the sag of the main cable should be adjusted according to the rule governing temperature’s influence on the mid-span of the main cable to avoid elevation deviations of the main cable arising from temperature. Saddle frictional resistance exerts a notable effect on tower deformation, guy cable tension, and tower stress. At a friction coefficient of 0.3, the stress caused by friction in the steel tube at the tower bottom constitutes 35.1% of the total stress under the maximum design hoisting load. During construction, the free rotation of rollers at the saddle should be ensured to reduce the mechanical response of the structure. The findings of this study can provide a basis for the design and construction of long-span asymmetric cable-suspended structures. Full article
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21 pages, 1582 KB  
Article
Tile Debonding Detection Based on Acoustic Signal Features and a Dual-Branch Convolutional Neural Network
by Dejiang Wang and Bo Kang
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 870; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040870 - 21 Feb 2026
Viewed by 321
Abstract
Tiles are commonly used as architectural finishing materials, but are prone to debonding defects due to construction and environmental factors in engineering applications. Therefore, effective detection of tile debonding holds significant engineering relevance. This study proposes a tile debonding detection method based on [...] Read more.
Tiles are commonly used as architectural finishing materials, but are prone to debonding defects due to construction and environmental factors in engineering applications. Therefore, effective detection of tile debonding holds significant engineering relevance. This study proposes a tile debonding detection method based on impact sound signal features and a dual-branch convolutional neural network. The sound signals collected through tapping are transformed into two types of two-dimensional feature maps using Mel-frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCCs) and continuous wavelet transform (CWT), which are then fed in parallel into the dual-branch convolutional neural network for feature extraction and fusion. Finally, tile debonding classification is performed in the classifier module. Experimental results show that the proposed model achieves a classification accuracy of 98.5% under laboratory conditions. Moreover, it demonstrates strong robustness under varying noise levels and sound pressure conditions, maintaining an accuracy of 82% in a 75 dB human voice noise environment. Field validation in real-world engineering environments yields an accuracy of 91.5%. These findings indicate that the proposed method, which combines MFCC and CWT features with a dual-branch convolutional neural network architecture, enables high-precision identification of tile debonding defects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Engineering Structure Inspection, Monitoring Technologies, and Post-Disaster Diagnosis, Maintenance, and Operation)
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20 pages, 30901 KB  
Article
Mechanical Response and Numerical Simulation of Cement-Stabilized Marine Soft Clay Under the Static Press-In Piling Machine Loading
by Zhiqiang Li, Yinan Li, Haobo Jin and Rongyue Zheng
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 868; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040868 - 21 Feb 2026
Viewed by 256
Abstract
This study investigates the impact of the Static Press-in Piling Machine (SPPM) on marine soft clay foundations in the Ningbo area using model testing and numerical simulation. In marine soft clay areas, it is common to increase the bearing capacity of the foundation [...] Read more.
This study investigates the impact of the Static Press-in Piling Machine (SPPM) on marine soft clay foundations in the Ningbo area using model testing and numerical simulation. In marine soft clay areas, it is common to increase the bearing capacity of the foundation by curing the foundation prior to the deployment of the SPPM to prevent problems such as “trapping”. This research examines the relationship between the unconfined compressive strength and the ultimate bearing capacity of foundations reinforced with varying percentages of cement. Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests and foundation bearing capacity model tests were conducted to establish the relationship between soil strength and foundation performance. The results indicate that the ultimate bearing capacity of the foundation increases linearly with cement content under the static load of the SPPM. Numerical simulations reveal that the SPPM’s long barge significantly affects soil stress distribution, emphasizing the need to incorporate these effects into the design of static pile systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Foundation Analysis: Soil–Structure Interaction—2nd Edition)
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18 pages, 2660 KB  
Article
The Game Between Quality Induction and Traffic Constraint: A Non-Linear Threshold Study of Park Travel Carbon Emissions from an Urban–Rural Differentiation Perspective
by He Zhang, Chao Wang, Hongjie Dong, Xiya Zhao, Yuxue Zhang and Mengge Du
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 867; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040867 - 21 Feb 2026
Viewed by 350
Abstract
As global decarbonization strategies pivot towards the burgeoning sector of recreational mobility, the tension between the attractive force of high-quality amenities and the constraining capacity of transport infrastructure in urban parks has emerged as a critical planning dilemma for high-density metropolises. To disentangle [...] Read more.
As global decarbonization strategies pivot towards the burgeoning sector of recreational mobility, the tension between the attractive force of high-quality amenities and the constraining capacity of transport infrastructure in urban parks has emerged as a critical planning dilemma for high-density metropolises. To disentangle this game mechanism, this study proposes a integrated Dual-Diagnostic Framework that synthesizes a modified gravity model, Grouped OLS regression, and an explainable XGBoost-SHAP algorithm to identify non-linear thresholds under spatial heterogeneity. Leveraging empirical data from Tianjin, a representative high-density metropolis, the analysis reveals a distinct bimodal distribution of carbon emissions from travel to comprehensive parks, confirming a fundamental structural divergence between urban and suburban mobility patterns. Crucially, the non-linear diagnosis uncovers a dominant Facility Configuration Induction mechanism within the suburban interface; here, park scale acts as the primary driver of excess travel, with its induction effect often overriding the mitigation potential of public transit until a specific critical mass is achieved. Consequently, the results identify a rigid threshold for bus station density alongside optimal intervals for park scale, providing quantitative benchmarks and differentiated governance strategies to resolve the paradox between park quality and carbon intensity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Low-Carbon Urban Planning: Sustainable Strategies and Smart Cities)
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23 pages, 5368 KB  
Article
Analysis of the Effect of Cold-Extruded Sleeve Connection on the Stability of Prefabricated Shear Walls
by Guang-Bin Pan, Ying-Rui Chen and Jian Cai
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 866; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040866 - 21 Feb 2026
Viewed by 245
Abstract
This study presents a systematic investigation into the seismic performance of precast concrete shear walls using cold-extruded sleeve connections for reinforcement splicing. Quasi-static cyclic loading tests were conducted on a full-scale precast wall specimen and a cast-in-place reference wall to evaluate the influence [...] Read more.
This study presents a systematic investigation into the seismic performance of precast concrete shear walls using cold-extruded sleeve connections for reinforcement splicing. Quasi-static cyclic loading tests were conducted on a full-scale precast wall specimen and a cast-in-place reference wall to evaluate the influence of construction joint detailing on structural behavior. The experimental results show that the precast wall exhibited progressive crack propagation, stable energy dissipation, and slightly higher ultimate lateral load and deformation capacity compared to the cast-in-place counterpart. In contrast, the cast-in-place wall experienced abrupt failure due to concrete spalling and out-of-plane splitting, highlighting the critical importance of reinforcement continuity and joint configuration. To further investigate key design parameters, high-fidelity finite element models were developed in ABAQUS. Concrete was modeled using the Concrete Damaged Plasticity model, while steel rebars and sleeves were simulated with a bilinear constitutive law. The numerical simulations, validated against experimental data, achieved good agreement in terms of load-drift response, crack patterns, and stress distributions. A parametric study was conducted by varying the wall aspect ratio, axial compression ratio, and longitudinal reinforcement ratio in the boundary elements. The results indicate that both the aspect ratio and axial compression ratio have significant effects on lateral load capacity and drift capacity, whereas the reinforcement ratio in the boundary elements exerts a relatively minor influence. For walls with low shear-span-to-depth ratios and high axial compression, increasing both longitudinal and horizontal reinforcement leads to noticeable improvements in load-carrying capacity and ductility. These findings confirm the reliability of the cold-extruded sleeve connection system in precast shear wall applications. The study establishes a validated numerical framework for seismic performance prediction and provides practical guidance for optimizing the design of prefabricated walls. This contributes to enhancing structural safety and improving seismic ductility, thereby supporting the broader adoption of precast systems in sustainable construction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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19 pages, 10968 KB  
Article
Lifestyle Migration Impact on Housing Development in Coastal Areas of Northern Cyprus
by Gözde Pırlanta and Asu Tozan
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 865; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040865 - 21 Feb 2026
Viewed by 315
Abstract
This study examines the impact of lifestyle migration on housing development in the coastal regions of Northern Cyprus through a comparative analysis of Girne (Kyrenia) and Iskele (Trikomo). A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining a literature review with semi-structured interviews with real estate [...] Read more.
This study examines the impact of lifestyle migration on housing development in the coastal regions of Northern Cyprus through a comparative analysis of Girne (Kyrenia) and Iskele (Trikomo). A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining a literature review with semi-structured interviews with real estate and construction stakeholders and structured surveys to analyse housing production patterns, user preferences, and spatial outcomes. The findings indicate that although both regions have experienced rapid housing growth driven by lifestyle-oriented demand, their development trajectories differ markedly. In Girne, housing production has evolved gradually, resulting in a fragmented and heterogeneous settlement structure shaped by mountainous topography and incremental planning practices. In contrast, Iskele has undergone rapid and large-scale development characterized by high-rise, high-density, and more homogeneous residential projects that are facilitated by flat terrain and investment-led growth. The results demonstrate that coastal housing transformation cannot be explained by lifestyle migration alone but emerges from the interaction between migration demand, planning regimes, and market dynamics. By providing a comparative and spatially grounded analysis within an island context characterized by limited planning control, this study offers empirical insights that contribute to debates on residential tourism, second homes, and sustainable coastal planning in Mediterranean regions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Real Estate, Housing, and Urban Governance—2nd Edition)
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19 pages, 8477 KB  
Article
Numerical Simulation of Natural Ventilation in Main Transformer Room of Indoor Substation
by Jizhi Su, Jun Zhang, Yong Kang, Yijun Wang and Jiyu Zhang
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 864; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040864 - 21 Feb 2026
Viewed by 277
Abstract
In the split main transformer room of the indoor substation studied in this paper, the heat dissipation area of the transformer main body and part of the convection pipeline accounts for approximately 5.4% of the total heat dissipation area, with the outdoor radiator [...] Read more.
In the split main transformer room of the indoor substation studied in this paper, the heat dissipation area of the transformer main body and part of the convection pipeline accounts for approximately 5.4% of the total heat dissipation area, with the outdoor radiator responsible for releasing most of the heat. Compared with the integrated main transformer room of indoor substations, the split-type design features a smaller building size and lower ventilation energy consumption, thus it is widely applied in urban areas. This study employs computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation to investigate the natural ventilation and heat dissipation performance of the main transformer room in a 110 kV indoor substation located in the Shijiazhuang area. A thermal imager is used to capture the surface temperature distribution of the main transformer, and the data is fitted into a polynomial function. During the numerical simulation, the surface temperature of the main transformer is set using a user-defined function (UDF), and the total heat dissipation of each heat-dissipating surface of the transformer is extracted via FLUENT(Ansys 2024 R2) software as the basis for evaluating the ventilation and heat dissipation effectiveness. The effects of different ventilation window sizes on the natural ventilation heat dissipation and air change rate of the indoor substation’s main transformer room under thermal pressure are compared. The feasibility of this numerical simulation method is verified through experimental measurements and theoretical analysis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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39 pages, 5830 KB  
Article
DHW Storage and Recirculation Systems in High-Rise Hotel Buildings: A Comparison of Energy Efficiency and Environmental Impacts
by Víctor Echarri-Iribarren, Cristian Fernández-Sedas and Rocío López-Zapata
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 863; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040863 - 21 Feb 2026
Viewed by 427
Abstract
This research examines high-rise hotel buildings located on the Mediterranean coast, focusing on the advantages, in terms of energy consumption and environmental benefits of installing domestic hot water (DHW) storage tanks on upper technical floors instead of in the basement. To this end, [...] Read more.
This research examines high-rise hotel buildings located on the Mediterranean coast, focusing on the advantages, in terms of energy consumption and environmental benefits of installing domestic hot water (DHW) storage tanks on upper technical floors instead of in the basement. To this end, the Bali Hotel, the tallest hotel in Europe, is analyzed as a case study. The proposed system achieves a substantial reduction in energy consumption by decreasing heat losses in DHW recirculation pipes (61.3%). Annual energy costs are reduced by €8976.89, corresponding to overall DHW energy savings of 3.69%. In addition, installation costs are reduced by €15,462.18 due to the shorter recirculation pipe lengths required, which must withstand very high pressures exceeding 6 kp/cm2, reaching up to 18 kp/cm2. Although the initial installation cost is €15,462.18 lower, the elevated placement of the tanks increases maintenance and replacement costs. Therefore, after a 50-year service life, total construction and maintenance costs are €17,366.82 higher. This additional cost is recovered within 1.93 years, yielding cumulative savings of €527,106 over the building’s lifespan. Finally, the study quantifies the associated environmental benefits, demonstrating an annual reduction of 24,335.03 kg CO2eq in carbon emissions, a novel contribution to the existing literature on this topic. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Sustainable Energy Performance of Green Buildings)
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29 pages, 6619 KB  
Article
Leveraging Machine Learning to Explore the Spatial Function Service Value Through Human Perceptual Experience
by Yingyi Zhang, Qi Shi and Jiayi Gao
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 862; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040862 - 21 Feb 2026
Viewed by 273
Abstract
Spatial function is critical to sustainable development in modern metropolises. Traditional spatial function patterns are mainly shaped by market forces, policies and zoning regulations. The role of human perceptual experience remains understudied. Taking Beijing as the study area, this study examines the relationship [...] Read more.
Spatial function is critical to sustainable development in modern metropolises. Traditional spatial function patterns are mainly shaped by market forces, policies and zoning regulations. The role of human perceptual experience remains understudied. Taking Beijing as the study area, this study examines the relationship between public perception and spatial function. It focuses on how consistency or inconsistency between the two environments influences spatial function service value. A two-step method is adopted in this research. First, the Weighted Average Cluster Index (WACI) works to analyze the spatial clustering of points of interest (POIs). This provides a quantitative basis for identifying spatial functions from integrated multi-source data. Second, a CatBoost binary classification model is applied to evaluate consistency and interpret the driving mechanisms. Key findings are obtained: (1) Perceptual underestimation of agricultural and cultural POI is significant in urban–rural transition zones. (2) Global analysis identifies education, commercial and sports POIs as the strongest contributors to function recognition. Local analysis reveals heterogeneous effects of POI categories across spatial scales. (3) Positive synergies occur between education–commercial and leisure–scenic areas. Industrial zones show functional competition with leisure and scenic areas. Shapley Additive Explanations (SHAP) clarifies the causes of perceptual discrepancies. It emphasizes the impacts of diverse urban morphological features and their interactive effects on public perception. Accordingly, strategies are provided for urban planners and policymakers such as promoting functionally mixed layouts with high consistency. This study offers an alternative approach to improving spatial function efficiency towards a sustainable development of modern metropolises. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Architectures, Materials and Urban Design, 2nd Edition)
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29 pages, 2075 KB  
Article
A Conceptual Framework for Pollution-Resilient Aluminium Façades: Introducing the Pollution Degradation Modifier (PDM)
by Muhammad Tayyab Naqash and Antonio Formisano
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 861; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040861 - 21 Feb 2026
Viewed by 431
Abstract
Urban air pollution presents significant and escalating challenges to the long-term performance, safety, and durability of aluminium alloy façade systems. This perspective article proposes a conceptual framework to improve the durability of curtain walls in urban environments by exploring the interactions between airborne [...] Read more.
Urban air pollution presents significant and escalating challenges to the long-term performance, safety, and durability of aluminium alloy façade systems. This perspective article proposes a conceptual framework to improve the durability of curtain walls in urban environments by exploring the interactions between airborne pollutants and their effect on aluminium materials. This paper synthesizes cross-disciplinary evidence and introduces a design concept, the Pollution Degradation Modifier (PDM), to conceptually integrate environmental stressors into standard code criteria. While not yet empirically validated, the PDM model outlines input parameters to guide future research and potential applications. Additionally, the study explores emerging mitigation strategies, including self-cleaning coatings, IoT-enabled monitoring systems, and smart façade technologies. The findings offer practical guidance for architects and structural engineers seeking to enhance façade resilience in high-pollution regions. Central to this research is the introduction of the Pollution Degradation Modifier (PDM), a new environmental load coefficient designed to support performance-based façade design responsive to site-specific pollution exposure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Aluminium Alloy Structural Applications)
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22 pages, 2428 KB  
Article
Axial Compression Behavior and Failure Mechanism of Aluminum Alloy Tube–Concrete Long Columns: A Finite Element Study
by Wei Ding, Mengzhen Lv, Suizi Jia, Xiwei Xu and Xiaozhong Zhang
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 860; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040860 - 21 Feb 2026
Viewed by 392
Abstract
Aluminum alloy tube–concrete composite columns have received increasing attention owing to their high strength-to-weight ratio and superior corrosion resistance compared with conventional steel–concrete composite columns. In this study, a refined finite element model is established to investigate the axial compression behavior of aluminum [...] Read more.
Aluminum alloy tube–concrete composite columns have received increasing attention owing to their high strength-to-weight ratio and superior corrosion resistance compared with conventional steel–concrete composite columns. In this study, a refined finite element model is established to investigate the axial compression behavior of aluminum alloy tube–concrete long columns. The results indicate that the axial bearing capacity and deformation characteristics are strongly governed by the confinement effect provided by the aluminum alloy tube, which varies significantly with different cross-sectional configurations. Circular and square aluminum alloy tubes exhibit distinct confinement mechanisms, leading to different stress distributions and damage evolution patterns in the core concrete. Enhanced confinement effectively improves the utilization of concrete strength and delays local buckling of the aluminum alloy tube, thereby contributing to an increase in axial bearing capacity. Furthermore, parametric analyses clarify the combined influence of material properties and geometric parameters on the confinement efficiency and overall axial compression performance of the composite columns. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Green and Intelligent Building Materials)
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17 pages, 5909 KB  
Article
Optimization and Performance Study of 3D Printed Concrete Mixture for Underground Utility Tunnels
by Peixi Guo, Hanwen Zhang, Enmu Ge, Ming Lin, Hang Jia, Yao Zhang and Xinyu Fan
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 859; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040859 - 20 Feb 2026
Viewed by 370
Abstract
The construction of traditional underground utility tunnels faces prominent challenges, including high costs, long construction cycles, and limited workspace. Although 3D printing technology offers an effective solution to these issues, its practical application is largely constrained by key performance factors such as the [...] Read more.
The construction of traditional underground utility tunnels faces prominent challenges, including high costs, long construction cycles, and limited workspace. Although 3D printing technology offers an effective solution to these issues, its practical application is largely constrained by key performance factors such as the printability, early strength, and interlayer bonding of concrete materials. This study aims to develop a 3D-printable concrete material specifically suited for the construction of underground utility tunnels. Through collaborative optimization of parameters such as the water–binder ratio, additives, and fiber content using single-factor and orthogonal tests, the optimal mix proportion was determined: a water–binder ratio of 0.30, a 10% dosage of rapid-hardening sulphoaluminate cement (R·SAC), a sand-to-binder ratio of 1.0, 20% mineral admixtures (15% fly ash + 5% silica fume), and a 1.0% volume fraction of polypropylene fibers. The results indicate that the fresh paste achieved a flowability of 192 mm, demonstrating excellent printability. Specimens printed using a sawtooth toolpath reached a 3-day compressive strength of 37.8 MPa, with 28-day compressive and flexural strengths increasing to 56.3 MPa and 7.8 MPa, respectively, and an interlayer bond strength of 3.5 MPa. Crucially, the compressive and flexural anisotropy coefficients were as low as 0.023 and 0.066, respectively, showing a preliminary exploratory trend superior to levels reported in some literature and suggesting the potential of printed components to improve structural performance consistency. This material system not only meets the requirements of 3D printing for early strength and workability but also, by introducing R·SAC to form a low-alkalinity binder system, provides a potential pathway for enhancing long-term durability in corrosive environments. This study offers a reliable theoretical and experimental basis for the application of 3D printing technology in underground engineering. Long-term durability will remain a primary focus of subsequent research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the 3D Printing of Concrete)
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29 pages, 5415 KB  
Article
Coupling of Pawnshop Building Distribution and Urban Spatial Structure in Macau via GIS and Space Syntax Analysis
by Qingnian Deng, Liang Zheng, Jingwei Liang, Yufei Zhu and Yile Chen
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 858; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040858 - 20 Feb 2026
Viewed by 503
Abstract
Pawnshop buildings are places where pawn transactions are conducted. They are usually composed of a front shop and a back building, and their shape resembles a fortress. As a typical gambling city, pawnshops in Macau appeared as early as the Qing Dynasty. By [...] Read more.
Pawnshop buildings are places where pawn transactions are conducted. They are usually composed of a front shop and a back building, and their shape resembles a fortress. As a typical gambling city, pawnshops in Macau appeared as early as the Qing Dynasty. By the late Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) and early Republic of China (1912–1949), they had become a common market. They reached their peak during the Anti-Japanese War and were an important financial institution for the people to solve their urgent needs. Today, many pawnshop buildings have become architectural heritage sites and are distributed around the buffer zone of the World Heritage Site. Their location is consistent with the evolution of urban space and the development of gambling and tourism industries. However, existing research lacks systematic research based on spatial quantification technology and it has yet to be determined whether there is a spatial alignment relationship between pawnshop location and urban spatial structure. This paper takes the whole of Macau as the research area and combines DepthmapX space syntax, GIS analysis, and historical data comparison of pawnshop buildings to explore the path dependence characteristics of pawnshop building location and the service radius law in urban space. The study found that the location of pawnshop buildings in Macau has evolved through three stages: initially relying on traditional market spaces, then gathering around casino areas during a stable phase, and finally becoming closely tied to the core areas of gambling venues in the prosperous stage. It shows a path dependence that is continuously strengthened on nodes with low traffic resistance. The service radius of pawnshop buildings exhibits an unbalanced characteristic, with a dense core area and a blank peripheral area, forming a multi-level system of a 200 m core service circle, a 400 m extended service circle, and an 800 m radiation service circle. This study proposes pathways for the adaptive reuse and activation of traditional pawnbroking architectural heritage. For instance, by drawing on the operational model of the Tak Seng On Pawnshop, the integration of cultural exhibition and livelihood services can be realized, thereby providing practical references for the adaptive reuse and conservation of heritage assets. This study offers dual theoretical and practical support for the conservation of pawnbroking architectural heritage in Macau, the site selection and planning of modern pawnbroking establishments, and the optimization of the city’s urban spatial structure. Meanwhile, it enriches the research system on the spatial alignment between the peripheral financial industry and urban space. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Trends in Architecture, Urbanization, and Design)
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18 pages, 3515 KB  
Article
Multi-Factor Modified Creep Deformation Prediction of High-Performance Concrete Structures: A Case Study
by Yixue Zhang, Hao Guo, Jun Zhang, Jianghong Mao, Rufeng Fang and Weiliang Jin
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 857; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040857 - 20 Feb 2026
Viewed by 302
Abstract
The use of high-performance concrete is a common practice in the construction of large-span bridges, where creep deformation may exert a considerable influence. This article puts forth a practical calculation method for long-term creep deformation of concrete bridges, based on short-term laboratory creep [...] Read more.
The use of high-performance concrete is a common practice in the construction of large-span bridges, where creep deformation may exert a considerable influence. This article puts forth a practical calculation method for long-term creep deformation of concrete bridges, based on short-term laboratory creep tests and multi-factor modification methods. A case study of a large-span railway concrete cable-stayed bridge examines the prediction results in conjunction with the monitoring data derived from digital image correlation (DIC) and compares these with the existing specifications. The results demonstrate that the mid-span deflection predicted by the proposed model shows a high degree of agreement with the short-term measurements. Over a monitoring period of 247 days, the mean mid-span deflection is found to be 2.948 mm and the predicted value is 3.343 mm, giving a relative error of 11.8% relative to the measured mean, which is deemed acceptable in engineering practice. The deflection values at various long-term time nodes indicate that the existing specifications generally overestimate the effect of creep when the concrete types are not taken into account. Although the predictions of the CEB90 model are closest to the model proposed in this paper, they are still 56.8%, 75.4% and 82.2% higher in the mid-span deflection at 3, 10 and 20 years after completion, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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