Endoscopic Optical Imaging Technologies and Devices for Medical Purposes: State of the Art
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Medical Imaging Applications
2.1. Optical Coherence Tomography
2.2. Confocal Microscopy
2.3. Nonlinear Microscopy
2.3.1. Multiphoton Microscopy
2.3.2. Higher Harmonic Generation Microscopy
2.3.3. Raman Scattering Microscopy
2.4. Photoacoustic Imaging
3. Scanning Directions
3.1. Side View Imaging
3.2. Forward View Imaging
4. Scanning Principle
4.1. Resonant Scanner
4.2. Non-Resonant Scanner
4.3. Semi-Resonant Scanner
5. Actuation Methods
5.1. Electrostatic Actuators
5.2. Electrothermal Actuators
5.3. Piezoelectric Actuators
5.4. Electromagnetic Actuators
5.5. Shape Memory Alloy Actuators
6. Scanning Patterns
6.1. Raster Scanning
6.2. Spiral Scanning
6.3. Lissajous Scanning
6.4. Circular Scanning
6.5. Propeller Scanning
7. Discussion
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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OCT | CM | Nonlinear Microscopy | Photoacoustic Imaging | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Multiphoton | Harmonic Generation | Raman Scattering | OR-PAM | AR-PAM | PAT | |||
Lateral resolution | 2–25 µm [2,10] | 1 µm [10,18] | ≈0.2 µm [47] | 4.9 µm [48] | 300 nm [49] | ~0.5–10 µm [44,45] | 45 µm [41,45] | 70–720 µm [41,45] |
Axial resolution | 1–15 µm [2,10] | 7 µm [18] | ≈0.6 µm [47] | 3.1 µm [48] | 1.6 µm [49] | 10 µm [44] | 15 µm [41,45] | 25–640 µm [41,45] |
Penetration depth | 1–3 mm [2,3,10] | >400 µm [18] | >200 µm [47] | 100–300 µm [50] | ~130 µm [51] | ~1 mm [45] | ~3–5 mm [45] | 70 mm [45] |
FOV | 2–5 mm [2] | 0.25–1 mm [2] | 200–500 µm [2] | 170 µm [50] | 205 µm × 205 µm [36] | 1–2 mm [2] | upto 36 mm × 80 mm [52] | ~40 mm [52] |
Orientation | Cross-section [10] | en face [10] | en face [10] | Cross-section [41] | ||||
wavelength | Near IR | Visible or Near IR | Near IR | Near IR or IR | ||||
Source | Low coherence [10] | Continuous wave or pulsed [10] | Pulsed [10] | Pulsed [41] | ||||
Frame rate | >60 Hz [2] | >15 Hz [2] | >5 Hz [2] | ~10 Hz (depends on scanning area) [2] | ||||
Advantages | High sensitivity, high imaging speed, deep tissue penetration, independent of source spectrum | High contrast due to rejection of out-of-focus scattered photons, isotropic and fine resolution, ability to control depth of field, ability to change magnification by changing the scanned area | Label free technology, High spatial resolution, less phototoxicity, and photobleaching due to exciting event taking place at focus point | High spatial resolution, High contrast, High imaging speed, and deep tissue penetration | ||||
Disadvantages | Expensive detector, depth resolution dependent on NA, small dynamic range | Two or more nearby fluorescence signals can overlap | Expensive laser source, needs dispersion compensation | Expensive transducers required to detect the poor acoustic signal, Signal to noise ratio decreases with the tissue penetration |
Forward View | Side View | References. | |
---|---|---|---|
Probe diameter | >250 µm (proximal scanning) >1.65 mm (distal scanning) | >250 µm (proximal scanning) >2.4 mm (distal scanning) | [54,56,77] |
Rigid length | >9 mm | >11 mm | [64,79] |
FOV | 50–400 µm | ~3–4 mm | [23,53,75] |
Image orientation | en face | Peripherical surface | |
Advantages | Can be used for image guidance to relocate and control the position of the medical devices, can directly image the extent of the malignancy and cancerous surface | Can image the finer cavities of the body, gives information about the wall/section of tissue layer involved in the malignancy, higher field of view, less expensive | |
Disadvantages | Limited field of view, limitation of miniaturization limits the ability to image the narrower sections | Difficult to guide the probe in the body due to lack of guidance |
Resonant Scanner | Semi-Resonant Scanner | Non-Resonant Scanner | |
---|---|---|---|
Scan area | ✓✓✓ | ✓✓ | ✓ |
Power consumption | ✓ | ✓✓ | ✓✓✓ |
Operating frequency | High | Intermediate | Low |
Advantages | Large displacement amplitude, low power consumption | Large scanning amplitude than non-resonant scanners, variable imaging field, stable working conditions | Operable at very low frequencies, stable to small variations of operating conditions, image field is variable |
Disadvantages | Offsetting the image field requires complex systems, Instability can lead to whirling motion | Performance highly depending on the working frequency | Small scanning amplitude, high power consumption |
Electrostatic | Electro-Thermal | Piezoelectric | Electromagnetic | Shape Memory Alloy | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Force | ✓ | ✓ | ✓✓✓ | ✓✓ | ✓✓✓ |
Displacement amplitude | ✓✓ | ✓✓✓ | ✓ | ✓✓✓ | ✓✓ |
Compactness | ✓✓✓ | ✓✓✓ | ✓✓ | ✓ | ✓✓ |
Working principle | Electrostatic force | Thermal expansion | Piezoelectric effect | Magnetization effect | Material deformation |
Advantages | Fast response, low voltage required, easy fabrication, and no hysteresis | Large displacement, low operating voltage, small dimensions | Large force generated, wide operating frequency range, low power consumption | Large displacement obtained, quick and linear response, easy to control | Flexibility, large frequency response |
Disadvantages | Large device dimensions, pull-in problem, complicated circuit | High working temperature, not operable at very high frequencies | Limited displacement | Large device dimensions, difficult to manufacture | Low displacement |
Raster | Spiral | Lissajous | Circular | Propeller | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Scanning pattern | | | | | |
Actuation pattern | | | | | Y(t) constant rotation |
Advantages | Uniform light intensity | Easy to get, area is swept by changing the driving voltage | Uniform light intensity, most used | Possible to get circular pattern with 1D actuation, area is swept by changing the driving voltage | Easy to generate |
Disadvantages | Points are scanned at different times can lead to motion artifacts | Light intensity is higher in center | Fill factor highly depends on the frequency ratio, quasi-random pattern | Light intensity is higher in center | Non uniform light intensity, the rotation of miniaturized structure requires complex and expensive devices |
Working Principle | Frequency | FOV | Drive Voltage | Scanner Dimensions | Scanning Pattern | References | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OCT using rotational MEMS probe | Micromotor | 1 kHz | - | >1 V | 2.4 mm (in diameter) | Radial | [54] |
MEMS fiber scanner for confocal microscopy | Electrothermal actuation | 239 Hz (x-axis) 207 Hz (y-axis) | 378 µm × 439 µm | 16 Vpp (duty cycle 13%) | Diameter (1.65 mm) Rigid length (28 mm) | Lissajous scanning | [69] |
Fiber scanner for forward viewing endoscope | Piezoelectric tube | 86 Hz (x-axis) 97 Hz (y-axis) | 732 µm × 591.7 µm | 40 Vac | Diameter (3.2 mm) Rigid length (50 mm) | Lissajous scanning | [63] |
OCT based on 2D MEMS mirror | Electrothermal actuation | 1.25 Hz (fast scan actuator pair) 0.0125 Hz (longitudinal) | 2.3 mm × 2.3 mm | 0–4 V ramp (fast scan) 0.5–3.5 V ramp (slow axis) | Diameter (5.8 mm) Rigid length (12 mm) | Lissajous scanning | [140] |
Scanning fiber endoscope | Piezoelectric tube | 5 kHz | 200 µm (in diameter) | <20 Vac | Diameter (1.2 mm -1.7 mm) Rigid length (9 mm) | Spiral scan pattern | [55,64] |
Multi-Photon Endoscope | Piezoelectric tube | 35 Hz | 900 µm (in diameter) | 40 Vac | Diameter (5 mm) Rigid length (4 cm) | Circular pattern | [141] |
OmniVision camera | Chip on tip camera | - | 364 µm × 364 µm | 3.3 Vac | 650 µm × 650 µm × 1158 µm | - | [142] |
FCFM using Cellvizio | Scanning mirrors at proximal end | 4 kHz | 160 µm × 120 µm ÷ 400 µm × 280 µm | - | 350 µm ÷ 1.8 mm diameter 20 mm Rigid length | - | [23] |
Scanning confocal microscope | Electrostatic torsional mirrors | 4.3 kHz (fast scan) 1.07 kHz (slow scan) | 100 µm (in diameter) | 20 V | 1.2 mm × 2.5 mm × 6.5 mm | Lissajous scanning | [19,143] |
Two-photon microscope | Electrostatically actuated mirrors | 1.08 kHz (fast scan) 0.65 kHz (slow scan) | 295 µm × 100 µm | 60 V | 2.0 cm × 1.9 cm × 1.1 cm | Raster scanning | [144] |
Side view endomicroscope | Electrostatically driven mirror | 12 kHz (fast scan) 3 kHz (slow scan) | 350 µm × 350 µm | 60 Vpp | 2.4 mm (in diameter) | Lissajous scanning | [24] |
Non-resonant MEMS scanner for OCT | Thin film piezoelectric | 50 Hz | 1 mm × 0.7 mm | 40 Vpp | 2.2 mm × 2.7 mm | Lissajous scanning | [89] |
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Kaur, M.; Lane, P.M.; Menon, C. Endoscopic Optical Imaging Technologies and Devices for Medical Purposes: State of the Art. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6865. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10196865
Kaur M, Lane PM, Menon C. Endoscopic Optical Imaging Technologies and Devices for Medical Purposes: State of the Art. Applied Sciences. 2020; 10(19):6865. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10196865
Chicago/Turabian StyleKaur, Mandeep, Pierre M. Lane, and Carlo Menon. 2020. "Endoscopic Optical Imaging Technologies and Devices for Medical Purposes: State of the Art" Applied Sciences 10, no. 19: 6865. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10196865