Impact of Nutraceuticals on Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus-Induced Micro- and Macrovasculopathies
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Classifications of Microvascular and Macrovascular Complications of Diabetes Mellitus
2.1. Classifications of Microvascular Complications of Diabetes Mellitus
2.1.1. Diabetic Retinopathy (DR)
Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) Classification
Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) Prevalence
Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) Pathogenesis
Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) Risk Factors
2.1.2. Diabetic Peripheral Neuropathy (DPN) and Its Prevalence
2.1.3. Diabetic Nephropathy (DN)
Diabetic Nephropathy (DN) Prevalence
Diabetic Nephropathy (DN) Pathogenesis
Diabetic Nephropathy (DN) Risk Factors
2.1.4. Macrovascular Complications of Diabetes Mellitus
Prevalence of Diabetes Mellitus Macrovascular Complications
Diabetes Mellitus Macrovascular Complications Pathogenesis
Diabetes Mellitus Macrovascular Complications Risk Factors
3. Nutraceuticals
3.1. Nutraceuticals Classification and Their Potential Effects on Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Treatment
3.1.1. Traditional Nutraceuticals
- (a)
- Functional Foods
- (b)
- Carotenoids
- (c)
- Dietary Fibers
- (d)
- Fatty Acids
- (e)
- Phytochemicals
- (i)
- Diabetic Retinopathy and Nutraceuticals (Cocoa) Treatment
- (ii)
- Diabetic Peripheral Neuropathy (DPN) and Cocoa Treatment
- (iii)
- Diabetic Nephropathy (DN) and Cocoa Treatment
- (iv)
- Diabetic Macrovascular Complications and Cocoa Treatment
- (f)
- Probiotics
- (g)
- Prebiotics
- (h)
- Postbiotics
- (i)
- Synbiotics
3.1.2. Non-Traditional Nutraceuticals:
- (a)
- Fortified nutraceuticals
- (b)
- Recombinant nutraceuticals
4. Conclusions
5. Future Studies/Recommendations
Author Contributions
Funding
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Classification of Nutraceuticals | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Type of Nutraceutical | Source | Active Chemical | Mechanism of Action | Disease/Illness | Reference |
Traditional Nutraceuticals | |||||
Functional Foods | |||||
Polyphenols | Fruits, vegetables, berries, grains, spices | Phenolic acids | Alpha-glucosidase inhibition, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory | Diabetes mellitus | [52] |
Millets | Grains | Soluble and insoluble fibers, zinc, magnesium, iron, flavanols, phenolics | Delays carbohydrate metabolism, glycemic control, antioxidants, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammation | Diabetes mellitus | [53] |
L-carnitine | Dietary sources (meat, dairy products), biosynthesis from lysine and methionine | Antioxidants, lipid-lowering properties | Enhances insulin sensitivity, lowering insulin resistance | Diabetes mellitus, atherosclerosis | [54] |
Vitamin D | Diet | Increases production of inflammatory cytokines, suppressing release of pro-inflammatory cytokines | Cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, obesity, inflammation, diabetes mellitus | [55] | |
Nicotinamide (vitamin B3) | Dietary sources (fish, legumes, eggs, nuts) | Nicotinamide | Inhibition of DNA repair enzyme (poly-ADP-ribose polymerase), protects against beta cell destruction | Type 1 diabetes mellitus | [56] |
Carotenoids | Fruits and vegetables | β-carotene, α-carotene, lutein zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin | Anti-diabetic and anti-inflammatory properties | Type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, obesity | [8,57] |
Lycopene | Anti-diabetic and antioxidants properties | Cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, diabetic retinopathy | [58,59] | ||
Astaxanthin | Antioxidant properties, anti-inflammatory properties, anti-hyperglycemic | Diabetes mellitus and its complications | [60] | ||
Dietary Fibers | |||||
Whole grains | Wheat, barley, oatmeal, rice | Non-digestible polysaccharides (NDPs), soluble/insoluble fibers, β-glucans, inulin, resistant starch | Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory activities, secretion of glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and leptin, reduces ghrelin synthesis, prevents postprandial hyperglycemia, improves insulin resistance | Cardiovascular diseases, obesity, and diabetes mellitus | [61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68] |
Fatty Acids | |||||
Sesame oil | Unsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, phytosterols, lignans | Anti-diabetic, anti-hyperglycemic, anti-hyperlipidemia, anti-cancer, antioxidative properties, and enhances immune function | Diabetes mellitus, cancer, hypertension, tachycardia, arteriosclerosis, | [69] | |
Flaxseed, fish oil, sunflower seed, nuts | Omega 3 and omega 6 | Modulation of inflammation and immune response | Diabetes mellitus | [70] | |
Phytochemicals | |||||
Flavanols | Fruits, vegetables, chocolates | Cocoa | Antioxidants, anti-inflammation | Cancer, diabetes mellitus, heart disease, renal problems | [71] |
Probiotics | |||||
Yogurt, fermented milk | Streptococcus thermophilus, Lactobacillus bulgaricus | Hypoglycemic activities | Diabetes mellitus | [72] | |
Prebiotics | |||||
Dietary fibers, fermented foods | Larch arabinogalactan-resistant starch, beta-glucans, xylooigosaccharides, fructooligosaccharides, galactooligosacharides, lactulose, polydextrose, inulin | Regulate composition and activity of gut microbiota | Type 2 diabetes mellitus | [73,74,75] | |
Postbiotics | Prebiotic microorganisms | GABA | Anti-hypertensive, antidepressant, anti-diabetic | Neurological disorders, diabetes complications | [76] |
Synbiotics | Products of pre-probiotics | Reduction in oxidative stress, inflammatory process, gastrointestinal barrier maintenance | [77] | ||
Non-Traditional Nutraceuticals | |||||
Fortified | |||||
Orange juice enriched with calcium, milk with cholecalciferol | Calcium, ascorbic acid | Anti-hyperglycaemia, enhance insulin sensitivity | Diabetes mellitus | [78] | |
Recombinant | Iron rice, golden rice, maize, golden mustard, multivitamin corn, gold kiwifruit | Ascorbic acid, carotenoids | Enhance immune response | [78] |
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Mabena, P.; Fasemore, T.M.D.; Nkomozepi, P. Impact of Nutraceuticals on Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus-Induced Micro- and Macrovasculopathies. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 64. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14010064
Mabena P, Fasemore TMD, Nkomozepi P. Impact of Nutraceuticals on Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus-Induced Micro- and Macrovasculopathies. Applied Sciences. 2024; 14(1):64. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14010064
Chicago/Turabian StyleMabena, Philanathi, Thandi M. D. Fasemore, and Pilani Nkomozepi. 2024. "Impact of Nutraceuticals on Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus-Induced Micro- and Macrovasculopathies" Applied Sciences 14, no. 1: 64. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14010064