Hydrothermal Manufacture of Zeolitic Lightweight Aggregates from Clay and Marine Plastic Litter
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Raw Materials
2.2. Preparation of Mixtures
- As it has already been proven that the kaolin has zeolitization capacity [21], it has been used as a main component in mixtures with different proportions of plastic, namely 0, 5, 10, and 20 wt.% of powdered MPF (Figure 1b), in order to check how it affects the manufacturing process of zeolitic lightweight aggregates (ZLAs).
- Secondly, knowing the results obtained in the first stage, the kaolin was mixed with the rejected Mg-clay in proportions 1:0, 2:1, 1:2, and 0:1, thus covering 100%, 33%, 67%, and 0% of each clay in the mixture. A fixed percentage of MPF (in this case 10 wt.%) was added to the resulting clay mixture based on the results of the first stage of the investigation, something that will be discussed later.
2.3. Granulation and Firing
2.4. Hydrothermal Treatment
2.5. Characterization of the Aggregates
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Zeolitic Lightweight Aggregates Obtained from Kaolin and Different Proportions of Marine Plastic
3.1.1. Mineralogical Changes and Zeolitization
3.1.2. Technological Properties of the ZLAs
3.2. Effect of the Addition of the Rejected Mg-Clay (Rich in Smectite and Sepiolite) on the Zeolitization of Lightweight Aggregates
3.2.1. Mineralogical Changes and Zeolitization
3.2.2. Impact of the Rejected Mg-Clay on the Technological Properties of the ZLAs
4. Conclusions
- The incorporation of MPF in proportions not exceeding 10 wt.% would be positive since its combustion during firing favors the formation of open porosity, which makes the subsequent alkaline hydrothermal treatment more effective. Therefore, adjusting the percentage of MPF in the mixture could help control the final properties of the material obtained. Thus, although the mechanical strength decreases with the MPF, the lightness and degree of zeolitization improve.
- The type of clay used in manufacturing is a critical aspect. Kaolin is very prone to zeolitization, being a suitable raw material for the manufacture of ZLAs. On the contrary, the rejected Mg-clay investigated (rich in magnesium smectite and sepiolite) seems to negatively affect zeolitization when it is added in high proportions. However, in a moderate content (33% rejected Mg-clay over 67% kaolin), it can give rise to materials with properties similar, or even superior (e.g., mechanical strength), to those obtained with kaolin alone. This invites further research into this clay with different formulation and manufacturing conditions, including the application of acid pretreatments for Mg removal.
- The hydrothermal zeolitization method allows working at significantly lower firing temperatures (600–900 °C in this work) than those usual for lightweight aggregates (>1000 °C). This can provide an important economic and environmental advantage by reducing energy consumption during manufacturing. In any case, it will be necessary to investigate these aspects in more detail in the future (for example, through life cycle assessment), especially to check if the emissions linked to the combustion of the MPF are compensated by the energy savings during hydrothermal manufacturing.
- The high zeolite content in the new lightweight aggregates could give them advanced properties compared to conventional ones. In addition to a significant increase in mechanical strength (even >50 fold compared to the starting fired material), it is well known the adsorbent capacity of zeolites, thus paving the way to investigate the decontamination capacity of the new ZLAs.
- Despite the potential environmental advantages indicated above, the impact generated by the burning of plastic waste in the manufacturing process is an aspect to be evaluated (pending for another study). However, it should be noted that the most widely used way of disposing of plastic waste in Europe is energy recovery by incineration [42], which indicates that a viable and safe technology already exists, which could be adapted to the manufacturing method presented in this work.
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Clay | Particle Size (µm) a | Atterberg Limits b | Carbon (%) c | Chemical Composition (%) d | Mineralogy (%) e | |||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
d50 | Mean | LL | PL | Total (Org.) | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | K2O | CaO | MgO | Others | LOI | Kao | Sm | Sp | Il | Q | Pg | Fp | Cal | Dol | |
Kaolin | 4.6 | 8.3 | 42.1 | 27.0 | ̶ | 50.9 | 35 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.5 | 12.6 | 84.9 | ̶̶̶̶ | ̶̶̶̶ | 2.5 | 12.6 | ̶ | ̶ | ̶ | ̶ |
Rejected Mg-clay | 18.5 | 16.4 | 171.1 | 74.8 | 0.85 (0.44) | 54.2 | 7.2 | 2.0 | 1.6 | 2.0 | 21.9 | 1.3 | 9.8 | ̶ | 37.8 | 30 | 3.9 | 11.1 | 4.3 | 7.9 | 2.6 | 2.4 |
Sample | Mineralogical Composition (%) | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kao | Ill | Q | Zeo A a | Can ab | Hysod ab | Zeo P1 a | Neph ab | Ana a | Am | Σ Zeolite ab | Σ Other Minerals | |
Kaolin (unfired) | 84.9 | 2.5 | 12.6 | 100 | ||||||||
K-0P-600 | 6.0 | 2.6 | 9.2 | 82.2 | 17.8 | |||||||
K-5P-600 | 2.2 | 1.9 | 9.2 | 86.7 | 13.3 | |||||||
K-10P-600 | 2.1 | 1.9 | 9.8 | 86.2 | 13.8 | |||||||
K-0P-600-H | 0.7 | 5.0 | 9.6 | 20.1 | 3.9 | 0.2 | 16.9 | 1.0 | 42.6 | 51.7 | 5.7 | |
K-5P-600-H | 0.4 | 3.1 | 20.5 | 5.9 | 8.4 | 5.2 | 16.8 | 1.5 | 38.3 | 58.3 | 3.5 | |
K-10P-600-H | 33.5 | 2.3 | 0.8 | 33.2 | 10.1 | 20.2 | 79.9 |
Aggregate | Diameter (mm) | Crushing Strength (MPa) | Density (g/cm3) | Water Absorption (%) | Porosity (%) | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | St. Dv. | Δ (%) a | Mean | St. Dv. | Δ Ratio a | ρrd | ρR | Δ ρrd (%) a | WA24 | Δ (%) a | PT | Δ PT (%) a | PO | PC | |
K-0P-600 | 10.6 | 0.7 | 0.45 | 0.07 | 1.49 | 2.695 | 25.1 | 44.6 | 37.6 | 7.0 | |||||
K-5P-600 | 10.7 | 0.7 | 0.13 | 0.03 | 1.34 | 2.635 | 27.8 | 49.3 | 37.2 | 12.2 | |||||
K-10P-600 | 10.5 | 0.6 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 1.36 | 2.641 | 23.7 | 48.6 | 32.2 | 16.4 | |||||
K-0P-600-H | 10.7 | 0.6 | 0.9 | 5.5 | 1.0 | 12.3 | 1.79 | 2.365 | 19.7 | 12.2 | −51.4 | 24.4 | −45.2 | 21.9 | 2.6 |
K-5P-600-H | 11.2 | 0.8 | 4.7 | 4.4 | 0.7 | 33.8 | 1.66 | 2.249 | 24.3 | 12.5 | −54.9 | 26.2 | −46.9 | 20.8 | 5.4 |
K-10P-600-H | 11.0 | 0.6 | 4.8 | 2.3 | 0.6 | 57.5 | 1.49 | 2.348 | 9.5 | 16.6 | −29.8 | 36.7 | −24.5 | 24.8 | 11.9 |
Sample | Mineralogical Composition (%) | ||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kao | Ill | Sm | Sp | Q | Plag | Fp | Cal | Dol | Pig | Mu | Zeo A a | Can ab | Sod ab | Phi a | Neph ab | Am | Σ Zeolite | Σ Other Minerals | |
Kaolin (unfired) | 84.9 | 2.5 | 12.6 | 100 | |||||||||||||||
Rejected Mg-clay (unfired) | 3.9 | 37.8 | 30 | 11.1 | 4.3 | 7.9 | 2.6 | 2.4 | 100 | ||||||||||
S0K1-10P-900 c | 3.2 | 12.2 | 84.7 | 15.4 | |||||||||||||||
S1K2-10P-900 c | 1.7 | 9.1 | 1.4 | 0.7 | 3.8 | 13 | 70.3 | 29.7 | |||||||||||
S0K1-10P-900-H c | 0.1 | 1.7 | 45.4 | 5 | 13.1 | 11.8 | 22.8 | 77 | 0.1 | ||||||||||
S1K2-10P-900-H c | 0.2 | 1.5 | 40.9 | 1.4 | 4.2 | 51.8 | 48 | 0.2 |
Aggregate | Diameter (mm) | Crushing Strength (MPa) | Density (g/cm3) | Water Absorption (%) | Porosity (%) | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | St. Dv. | Δ (%) a | Mean | St. Dv. | Δ Ratio a | ρrd | ρR | Δ ρrd (%) a | WA24 | Δ (%) a | PT | Δ PT (%) a | PO | PC | |
S0K1-10P-900 | 10.0 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 1.39 | 2.722 | 25.8 | 48.8 | 36.0 | 12.7 | |||||
S1K2-10P-900 | 9.5 | 0.6 | 1.7 | 0.4 | 1.44 | 2.859 | 24.1 | 49.7 | 34.8 | 15.0 | |||||
S0K1-10P-900-H | 10.5 | 0.7 | 5.0 | 3.1 | 0.6 | 20.7 | 1.65 | 2.312 | 18.1 | 11.8 | −54.1 | 28.8 | −41.0 | 19.5 | 9.2 |
S1K2-10P-900-H | 9.6 | 0.6 | 1.1 | 3.4 | 0.8 | 2.0 | 1.74 | 2.395 | 21.1 | 11.5 | −52.4 | 27.4 | −45.0 | 20.0 | 7.4 |
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Moreno-Maroto, J.M.; Govea, J.M.; Poza, P.; Regadío, M.; Cuevas, J.; Ruiz, A.I.; Fernández, R.; Alonso-Azcárate, J. Hydrothermal Manufacture of Zeolitic Lightweight Aggregates from Clay and Marine Plastic Litter. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 7674. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177674
Moreno-Maroto JM, Govea JM, Poza P, Regadío M, Cuevas J, Ruiz AI, Fernández R, Alonso-Azcárate J. Hydrothermal Manufacture of Zeolitic Lightweight Aggregates from Clay and Marine Plastic Litter. Applied Sciences. 2024; 14(17):7674. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177674
Chicago/Turabian StyleMoreno-Maroto, José Manuel, Julia M. Govea, Pablo Poza, Mercedes Regadío, Jaime Cuevas, Ana Isabel Ruiz, Raúl Fernández, and Jacinto Alonso-Azcárate. 2024. "Hydrothermal Manufacture of Zeolitic Lightweight Aggregates from Clay and Marine Plastic Litter" Applied Sciences 14, no. 17: 7674. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177674