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Article

Tectonic Geomorphology and Quaternary Activity Characteristics of the Jining River Northern Margin Fault, Inner Mongolia, North China

by
Haowen Ma
1,2 and
Shaopeng Dong
1,2,*
1
Key Laboratory of Seismic and Volcanic Hazards, Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing 100029, China
2
State Key Laboratory of Earthquake Dynamics and Forecasting, Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing 100029, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(9), 4610; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15094610
Submission received: 26 December 2024 / Revised: 28 March 2025 / Accepted: 8 April 2025 / Published: 22 April 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Paleoseismology and Disaster Prevention)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The Jining River northern margin fault is a newly discovered Quaternary active fault, located at the junction of the northeastern corner of the Ordos Block and the Yinshan-Yanshan Uplift (Jining District, Ulanqab, Inner Mongolia). The northeastern margin of the Ordos Block, where the fault is located, is a juxtaposition zone between several active tectonic plates, with widespread active fault distribution and complex tectonic relationships in the region. This study primarily uses seismogeological investigation methods, aiming to reveal the Quaternary activity and seismic hazard of this fault, providing a new analytical perspective on regional seismic activity. Through various methods, geomorphological measurements along the linear scarp of the fault were conducted to determine the distribution of the fault, the surface displacement, and the rupture length caused by its activity. Trenches were excavated at two study sites (Hanqingba and Erjiayan), revealing evidence of paleoearthquake activity. The activity age of the fault was determined through OSL (Optically Stimulated Luminescence) dating of the trench samples. The main conclusions include the following: (1) The fault is a normal fault, spreading along the northern boundary of the Jining Basin, an independent small-scale graben basin in the region, with fault activity controlling basin evolution. (2) The fault was active from the late Middle Pleistocene to the Late Pleistocene, causing scarps in the geomorphology. Since the late Middle Pleistocene, its activity has gradually weakened, with no surface rupture in the Late Pleistocene, and the fault has been inactive in the Holocene.

1. Introduction

The Ordos Block is characterized by internal stability and integrity, with few earthquakes occurring [1,2], while under the influence of regional stress, the surrounding areas are densely populated with faults and frequently experience strong seismic events, which are distributed along the boundaries of a series of compressional zone and down-faulted depression zones at the periphery of the Ordos block, mainly strike-slip faults and normal faults [1,2,3,4,5,6]. Frequent strong seismic events occur in these areas, in stark contrast to the seismic activity within the block itself [1,2,7]. Located at the junction of the Tibetan Plateau, North China, and South China blocks, the region features complex geological structures and intense tectonic activity [7] (Figure 1A). Moderate to strong seismic activities are relatively frequent [2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11], making it a longstanding focus of research on active tectonics, attracting widespread attention from scholars.
According to previous studies, the periphery of the Ordos Block is a seismically active zone where strong earthquakes have occurred multiple times [12,13,14]. Earthquakes are primarily concentrated in these faulted basins, and historical records indicate that four earthquakes with a magnitude of M ≥ 8 have occurred in these regions [4]. However, there is debate regarding the magnitude of these historical earthquake records, all of which studies have shown were associated with fault activities in these basins [15,16] (Figure 1A,B). Over the past 50 years, several earthquakes with M ≥ 6 have consecutively struck Inner Mongolia, with the faulted basins along the northern margin of the Ordos Block and the Yanshan Uplift boundary zone becoming the new primary area for moderate to strong seismic activity in northern North China [17,18].
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Figure 1. Simplified regional active tectonic setting map of China (A), Ordos Block area (B), and Jining Basin and nearby areas (C). The black thick letters in (A) present the first-order active tectonic block zone. The fault trace location in (B) is modified from Deng (2008) [19]. The GPS velocity field is from Wang and Shen (2020) [20]. The earthquake statistics data from China Earthquake Networks Center (CENC) since 1970 (https://news.ceic.ac.cn/). F1: Jining River Northern Margin Fault; F2: Daqingshan Piedmont Fault; F3: Zhangjiakou Fault; F4: Ximalin Fault; F5: Daihai Northern Margin Fault; F6: Daihai Southern Margin Fault; F7: Ordos Northern Margin Fault; F8: Helingeer Fault; F9: Kouquan Fault; F10: Zuosuobao–Songzhikou Fault; F11: Bendiqing–Yongxing Fault; F12: Huairen Fault; F13: Shuiyu Fault; F14: Cailiangshan Eastern Margin Fault; F15: Tuanbao Fault; F16: Yangyuan Basin Northern Margin Fault; and F17: Yangyuan Basin Southern Margin Fault.
Figure 1. Simplified regional active tectonic setting map of China (A), Ordos Block area (B), and Jining Basin and nearby areas (C). The black thick letters in (A) present the first-order active tectonic block zone. The fault trace location in (B) is modified from Deng (2008) [19]. The GPS velocity field is from Wang and Shen (2020) [20]. The earthquake statistics data from China Earthquake Networks Center (CENC) since 1970 (https://news.ceic.ac.cn/). F1: Jining River Northern Margin Fault; F2: Daqingshan Piedmont Fault; F3: Zhangjiakou Fault; F4: Ximalin Fault; F5: Daihai Northern Margin Fault; F6: Daihai Southern Margin Fault; F7: Ordos Northern Margin Fault; F8: Helingeer Fault; F9: Kouquan Fault; F10: Zuosuobao–Songzhikou Fault; F11: Bendiqing–Yongxing Fault; F12: Huairen Fault; F13: Shuiyu Fault; F14: Cailiangshan Eastern Margin Fault; F15: Tuanbao Fault; F16: Yangyuan Basin Northern Margin Fault; and F17: Yangyuan Basin Southern Margin Fault.
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In our previous research, we identified a previously unknown Quaternary active fault located within Ulanqab, Inner Mongolia, at the northeastern margin of the Ordos Block. This fault is situated at the northern boundary of the Jining Basin, located on the northwestern side of Ulanqab city. The Jining Basin lies at the intersection of the northeastern edge of the Ordos Block and the Yinshan Uplift, and structurally it belongs mainly to the Yinshan Uplift region (Figure 1B,C). The Jining River flows through the middle of the basin and converges southward into Huangqihai Lake. Therefore, we have named the Jining River Northern Margin Fault (JRNF) (Figure 1B,C). Around the JRNF within the study region, the current research on active tectonics in this area primarily focuses on the eastern and northern margins of the Ordos Block. For example, the Daihai–Huangqihai Fault Zone in the south has revealed an abnormal reversal of vertical motion and its potential to generate large earthquakes [21]. The Daihai southern margin fault is the seismogenic structure responsible for the 2020 Helingeer ML 4.5 earthquake sequence [22]. The NE-trending Helingeer Fault, marking the eastern boundary of the Hetao Graben, is a late Pleistocene active normal fault, where the ML 6.5 Helingeer earthquake occurred in 1976 [23,24]. The NEE-trending Daqingshan Piedmont Fault exhibits strong Holocene activity, with the seismic hazard in its eastern segment being significantly higher than in its western segment [25,26]. These active tectonics are located adjacent to the JRNF, showing a surrounding risk of large earthquakes of M ≥ 7. The JRNF lies between two faulted basins and represents a seismic gap for earthquakes of M ≥ 6 (Figure 1C); meanwhile, the eastern segment of the Ordos Block is considered to have a high seismic risk over the next century, with potential maximum earthquake magnitudes of M ≥ 7 [27,28]. However, no detailed qualitative or quantitative research on active tectonics within the study area has been conducted. Therefore, investigating the Quaternary tectonic activity of the JRNF is crucial to filling this research gap, providing valuable insights into the seismogenic structure of the northern margin area of the Ordos Block and seismic risk analysis of the nearby Ulanqab City, where more than 1.6 million people are living [5].
Here, based on high-resolution satellite remote sensing image analysis and interpretation of fault geomorphology, this study conducts qualitative and quantitative research on the geometric distribution and tectonic activity characteristics of the JRNF through various methods. Based on the characteristics of fault activity since the Quaternary period, some further studies on this area can be evaluated.

2. Geological Background

2.1. Regional Tectonic Setting

The JRNF is located in the junction area of the Ordos Block, the North China Plate, and the Yinshan-Yanshan Block (Figure 1B). The present tectonic framework of the northern North China Plate is based on the Yanshanian Movement and has been significantly influenced by the Himalayan Movement [1,29,30,31]. During the Quaternary period, the tectonic pattern generally inherited the late Cenozoic configuration, shaping the current regional geological and geomorphological landscape. Due to the uneven movement within the block in terms of time, space, manner, and intensity, multiple neotectonic units have formed [30,31]. These tectonic units are separated by fault zones or structural belts [29,30]. To the north of our study area lies the Yinshan-Yanshan Uplift, the Hetao Graben to the west, the Lvliangshan Uplift to the south, and the Shanxi Graben System and Taihangshan Mountain Uplift to the southeast (Figure 1B).
Since the Cenozoic era, the Yinshan-Yanshan Uplift region has primarily undergone uplift movements, characterized by high intensity overall. The uplift is more pronounced in the west and less so in the east [8,9]. Internal tectonic activity is relatively minor, and the seismic activity level is moderate, mainly concentrated along its southern boundary. Several moderate to strong earthquakes (7 > M ≥ 6) and multiple smaller earthquakes (6 > M ≥ 5) have occurred in Baotou and Zhangjiakou since the 1990s [9,13,30].
Since the Cenozoic era, the Hetao Graben has primarily undergone continuous subsidence, characterized by high intensity and significant magnitude. The Cenozoic strata in the region reach a thickness of up to 7000 m, and the Quaternary deposits exceed 2000 m, making it the area with the thickest Cenozoic and Quaternary deposits among the fault systems surrounding the Ordos Block [29]. Seismic activity in the region is moderate, with significant earthquakes of magnitude M ≥ 6 occurring in Wuyuan and Bikeqi in the last century [25,26,27]. Nonetheless, the seismic activity level in the Hetao Graben is considerably less intense compared to the faulted basins around the Ordos Block [18].
The Shanxi Faulted Basin has been characterized by intermittent subsidence movements with moderate intensity. The thickness of Cenozoic deposits ranges from 3000 m to 5000 m, while the Quaternary deposits are generally less than 1000 m thick [29]. However, the early Quaternary period saw intense volcanic activity in the Shanxi Faulted Basin, and recent seismic activity has been relatively strong. This region is a major zone of strong seismic activity in North China. Since the earliest recorded earthquake in 213 BC, the northern part of the Shanxi Faulted Basin has experienced four earthquakes with magnitudes of 8 > M ≥ 7 and seven earthquakes with magnitudes of 7 > M ≥ 6 [4,30].
In summary, the JRNF is located in a large-scale tectonic environment characterized by slow uplift in the north and extensional faulting in the south. Around the JRNF study area, the tectonic activity is intense in both the western and southeastern regions, though their manifestations differ. To the north, the Yinshan Uplift and the Hetao Graben exhibit significant activity with large variations in movement amplitude, but modern seismic activity is relatively low. In contrast, the southeastern region, including the Lvliangshan and Taihangshan uplifts and the northern Shanxi Graben System, experiences less intense vertical tectonic activity compared to the west (Figure 1B). However, volcanic and magmatic activity in this area is very strong, with modern seismic activity being higher than in the Yinshan Uplift and Hetao Graben, both in frequency and intensity (Figure 1B) [1,13,17]. The tectonic features in the study area are complex. Although there are no records of major earthquakes, there have been 12 earthquakes with M ≤ 4.0 in the past decade within the study area [18] (Table 1). Overall, since the Quaternary, the region has primarily exhibited characteristics of vertical differential movements between blocks with varying intensities, accompanied by moderate and minor seismic activities.

2.2. Distribution and Geological Characteristics of the JRNF

To the north of the JRNF, the mountainous region belongs to the central part of the eastern Daqingshan segment of the Yinshan Mountains, primarily characterized by a medium to low mountain terrain with a base of Neogene volcanic rocks. To the south lies the Jining Basin, where Quaternary deposits mainly consist of alluvial and colluvial gravel layers, gravelly soil, and residual slope colluvial gravel soil, with localized lacustrine deposits. The thickness of the Quaternary sediments generally does not exceed 1 m, though in valley and depression areas, it can reach up to 5–10 m. The lithologic composition varies significantly and is complex in origin. High-resolution satellite imagery reveals that the fault has developed multiple alluvial fans and piedmont alluvial plains along the northern front of the basin (Figure 2). To the west, it does not distinctly control the landforms. The JRNF is starting from the valley north of Hadatu Township, it extends eastward through Datucheng Village, Xiaotucheng Village, and Dashihao Village, becoming less distinct east of Chagan Sum. The fault trends NEE and is approximately 50 km in length (Figure 2). The fault’s tectonic geomorphological features are prominent, cutting through the mountain ridges on the NW side and effectively defining the northern boundary of the Jining Basin. It serves as a significant geomorphological boundary between high mountain and basin terrains, forming notable linear fault valleys, fault scarps, and fault triangular facets.

3. Methods

Initially, we conducted a reconnaissance survey utilizing high-resolution satellite imagery from Google Earth. Subsequently, we mapped the entire JRNF and systematically classified the alluvial–proluvial fans into three distinct categories (F1–F3). To identify the most suitable trenching locations, field mapping was executed at a scale of 1:50,000. By identifying the fault’s geomorphic modification of the alluvial–proluvial fans, two optimal trenching sites were chosen and subsequently excavated.
Advanced 3D surface reconstruction methods, including Structure-from-Motion (SfM) [32,33], were utilized to create high-resolution digital elevation models (DEMs) for each trenching site, leveraging an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). A DJI Phantom 4 RTK UAV (Shenzhen, China) was deployed to navigate a predetermined path within a rectangular zone at an elevation of 200 m. More than 300 high-resolution photographs, each boasting 20 million pixels and featuring a 75–80% overlap, were taken to facilitate the reconstruction of the terrain with a precision of 0.5 m. The integration of the Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) module into the UAV significantly enhances the absolute accuracy of image metadata, allowing for precise data collection without ground control points (GCPs). RTK technology minimizes the time delay between positional information and camera data, resulting in improved positioning accuracy for the captured images. This advancement ensures high precision in aerial imaging applications (https://enterprise.dji.com/cn/phantom-4-rtk, accessed on 7 April 2025). In this study, the Agisoft Metashape Professional software (Version 1.5.2 build 7838 (64 bit)) was used to produce the DEM data for the study area. The location of the fault scarp is determined by DEM.
Due to restrictions from the no-fly zone around Jining Airport, the UAV-based mapping was limited in coverage at the study site. To more accurately define the height of the escarpment, a Trimble R8 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) real-time kinematic (RTK) system was used for vertical measurements of the fault scarp. As vegetation is scarce in the Jining region, the flat, treeless terrain offered an ideal environment for a global positioning system (GPS), allowing for a baseline survey across a 2 km area to be internally accurate within 2 cm. The precise accuracy would be contingent upon the satellite geometry’s details at the time of the survey [34]. The Surfer 20 software (Version 20.1.195 (64 bit)) was used to produce the topography profile across the fault.
Paleoseismic trenching stands as the preeminent method for paleoseismic investigation [35]. Utilizing photo-based 3D reconstruction techniques [36,37], which incorporate horizontal and vertical scales in situ, mosaic orthoimages brimming with the richest paleoseismic data were obtained. The trench walls were meticulously categorized into distinct layers, guided by attributes such as color, grain size, content, and texture. OSL (Optically Stimulated Luminescence) dating samples were collected to constrain the active timing of the fault. The OSL samples were collected with consideration for potential null results, unforeseen issues, and restricted sampling conditions, which were attributed to the pluvial-slope facies deposits within the trenches. For samples with insufficient quartz (Q) content, K-feldspar (Kf) testing was used, employing a combination of stepwise heating infrared post-IR luminescence and Standard growth curve (SGC) methods, effectively overcoming the anomalous fading of Kf. All OSL samples from the trenches underwent processing at the laboratory of luminescence chronology, Linyi University, Shandong, China. Detailed OSL dating information is displayed in Table 2.
At the same time, ground-penetrating radar (GPR) can provide a clear image of the deformational structures, such as shallow subsurface fractures in different geological environments [38]. Since one of the trenches failed to reveal the fault, we deployed a GPR line parallel to the trench orientation to conduct a more representative and comprehensive study of the fault’s near-surface structure and spatial variations. A MALA RAMAC/GPR (Malå, Sweden) was deployed to collect data, and the Reflexw 01 software (Version v5.0 1CD) was used to produce the GPR profile.

4. Results

By conducting geological and geomorphological surveys along the fault from Hatuda Township to ChaganSumu Village using the tracing method, the fault’s distribution was largely determined. The interpretation of satellite imagery combined with field investigations confirmed that the fault’s control over geomorphology is more evident between Datucheng and Xiaotucheng villages, where linear fault-related features are well preserved (Figure 2). The JRNF displaces a large alluvial fan at the gully mouth approximately 1 km southwest of Hanqingba. A linear scarp cutting across the fan, trending NEE, has a height of about 1–2 m. The fault similarly displaces a large alluvial fan on the northern side of Erjiayan, forming a linear scarp trending NEE with a height of about 5 m. The scarp on the surface of this alluvial fan is clearly caused by fault activity. No clear signs of recent activity were observed in other sections of the JRNF. Based on these findings, Hanqingba (Site 1) and Erjiayan (Site 2) villages were identified as two key investigation sites for detailed study.

4.1. Hanqingba Village (Site 1)

4.1.1. Site Description and Fault Geomorphology

Site 1 is located in the central part of the JRNF. At the mouth of a mountain-front gully, the Quaternary first-order alluvial fan (Fan 1) is displaced by the fault, forming a distinct NEE-trending linear scarp. The construction of a factory on the fan surface has covered most of this alluvial fan, destroying much of the middle section of the linear scarp (Figure 3A).
To further determine the displacement of the geomorphic surface caused by fault activity at Site 1, RTK GPS survey lines (HQB and HQB-W) were completed on the eastern and western scarp sections. The topographic profiles of these survey lines show that the fault scarp height on the alluvial fan surface is 1.5–1.8 m (Figure 3B).
Additionally, high-precision UAV photogrammetry was conducted at the western end of the scarp on the displaced alluvial fan. The resulting orthomosaic image and DEM maps reveal a clear 400-m-long surface trace of the scarp, which aligns with the fault trend. These results indicate that the fault has been active since the Quaternary and exerts significant control over the local geomorphology (Figure 4).

4.1.2. Evidence for Fault Activity and Parameters

To obtain fault profile information at Site 1, the HQB trench was excavated at the western end of the scarp, where the surface linear feature is most distinct. The HQB trench crosses the fault scarp and extends along a NW 323° orientation, with its GPS location at 41°06′46.01″ N, 112°53′45.01″ E.
Seven units were defined within the west wall of the HQB trench (Figure 5), and the specific descriptions of the stratigraphic units are as follows:
  • U1: Bedrock layer, gray-black, consisting of volcanic tuff forming the platform base.
  • U2: Colluvial layer, reddish-brown, composed of medium to coarse sand mixed with fine gravel, representing typical wedge-shaped deposits in front of the scarp. The composition is mixed, primarily derived from the highly weathered and loose volcanic tuff of U1.
  • U3: Alluvial layer, earthy yellow, with some directional features, small gravel size, and moderate consolidation.
  • U4: Clay layer, yellow to reddish-brown, composed of fine silt to silty sand. It is inferred to be a stagnant water deposit in front of the scarp or a locally developed sedimentary lens, showing tight consolidation.
  • U5: Alluvial layer, yellowish-brown, with poor sorting and rounding, small gravel size, and loose consolidation.
  • U6: Alluvial layer, gray-white to earthy yellow, containing larger gravel clasts. The lower sediments show calcification and whitening, suggesting deposition from multiple alluvial events during the same period. The composition is relatively consistent, with poor sorting and rounding, and moderately tight consolidation.
  • U7: Paleosol layer, black-yellow, containing medium to coarse gravel. It is soil-like and loosely consolidated.
These units can be classified into two main sections delineated by a clear fault (Figure 5). On the north side of the fault plane, the strata consist of typical gray-black volcanic tuff, showing some degree of weathering but with distinct characteristics of the original bedrock (U1). On the south side of the fault plane, multiple phases of alluvial events were identified, forming typical alluvial fan deposits (U3 and U5). A colluvial wedge deposit was developed on the southern side of the fault plane, closely adjacent to the fault surface. It consists mainly of highly weathered volcanic tuff material that is heavily argillized, contrasting sharply with the tuff on the northern side (U2).
The clear fault in the trench profile indicates that the most recent surface faulting event occurred before the deposition of U2. The U3, U4, and U5 strata show thickened deposition in front of the scarp, displaying typical post-seismic scarp-front deposition characteristics. On the northern side, the U3 and U5 alluvial strata are absent above the U1 bedrock, while the U6 layer shows no absence or thickness variation. This suggests that fault activity persisted until the deposition of U6. The U3 and U5 layers in the trench are typical alluvial gravel deposits, predominantly composed of gravel, making it impossible to collect OSL samples. In contrast, U4 is a 20–30 cm thick yellow to reddish-brown clay layer, indicative of stagnant water deposition. To further refine the timing of fault activity, one OSL sample (WOSL-9) was collected from the base of U4 at a consistent location (Figure 5). OSL dating results indicate that the sediment age of U4 is 378 ± 31 ka B.P., in the Middle Pleistocene.
By interpreting the eastern wall profile of the Hanqingba trench (Figure 6) and comparing it with the western wall, the stratigraphy revealed by both walls is generally consistent, clearly confirming the presence of the JRNF.
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Figure 5. Photomosaic of the west wall of the HQB trench (A) and the corresponding trench map with results for OSL ages (B).
Figure 5. Photomosaic of the west wall of the HQB trench (A) and the corresponding trench map with results for OSL ages (B).
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Figure 6. Photomosaic of east wall of HQB trench.
Figure 6. Photomosaic of east wall of HQB trench.
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4.2. Erjiayan Village (Site 2)

4.2.1. Site Description and Fault Geomorphology

Site 2 is located on the western segment of the JRNF. A distinct NEE-trending linear scarp is formed where the fault cuts through a Quaternary first-order alluvial fan (Fan 1) on the eastern side of a piedmont river channel. The scarp crosses the river channel. However, vertical displacements caused by the fault on both terraces were not well preserved due to water conservancy projects along the channel. The western segment has been anthropogenically altered, obscuring surface traces, but the eastern segment retains a clear linear feature extending approximately 500 m north of Erjiayan (Figure 7A).
Along the eastern segment of the scarp, three RTK GPS survey lines (EJY-E, EJY, and EJY-W) were conducted perpendicular to the linear fault trend to quantify the geomorphic offset caused by fault activity at Site 2. The topographic profiles show that the fault scarp on the alluvial fan surface has a height of 5.2–7.7 m (Figure 7B).
Additionally, high–precision UAV photogrammetry was conducted centered on the location where the scarp crosses the river channel. The orthomosaic image and DEM images clearly show surface traces of the scarp extending about 200 m on the eastern riverbank. On the western bank, where the scarp cuts the volcanic platform, the scarp is less distinct in the orthomosaic image but is visible in the DEM. The overall trend of the scarp aligns with the fault’s orientation, and its displacement of the alluvial fan indicates Quaternary fault activity (Figure 8).

4.2.2. Evidence for Fault Activity and Parameters

At Site 2, a trench was excavated at the eastern end of the scarp, where the surface linearity is most distinct, to obtain information about the fault profile. The EJY trench intersects the surface fault scarp, which trends SE152°, and is located at GPS coordinates 41°08′57.21″ N, 113°00′28.60″ E.
Six units were defined within the west wall of the HQB trench (Figure 9), and the specific descriptions of the stratigraphic units are as follows:
  • U1: Alluvial layer, orange-yellow to brown, containing coarse to very large gravels, poorly sorted and poorly rounded. Local mud content shows slight horizontal bedding, with relatively strong consolidation.
  • U2: Alluvial deposits, yellow-brown, composed of muddy coarse sand with fine gravels. Poorly rounded, lacking stratification, and relatively well consolidated.
  • U3: Alluvial layer, gray-white to earthy yellow, exhibiting some directional features. Medium-sized gravels, poorly rounded, with slight horizontal bedding visible in local muddy areas. Relatively well consolidated.
  • U4: Alluvial layer, reddish–brown to gray–brown, moderately sorted, poorly rounded, with large-sized gravels, and loosely consolidated. This layer shows evidence of sediment deformation, overlying U1, U2, and U3, likely caused by paleoseismic activity.
  • U5: Loess layer, earthy yellow, silt-like, lacking stratification, and tightly consolidated.
  • U6: Paleosol layer, dark brown, containing medium to fine gravels, with a soil-like texture, and loosely consolidated.
The trench profile revealed evidence of multiple alluvial deposition events, characteristic of alluvial fan sedimentary layers (U1, U2, U3, and U4). Although no distinct fault outcrop was observed, significant deformation of sedimentary layers was identified in front of the scarp (Figure 9).
No clear fault plane traces were observed in the trench profile, but the sedimentary characteristics of U1 and U3 alluvial layers are consistent, with both exhibiting some stratification. However, stratification dips of U1 are more steeply southward than U3. Sedimentary units U1, U2, and U3 exhibit deposition gaps, likely caused by fault activity burying the southern strata within the basin. U4 shows significant flexural deformation, with changes in sedimentary morphology that may have been caused by paleoseismic events. U5 also exhibits typical scarp-front sedimentary characteristics, with a sudden increase in thickness at the front edge of the scarp. Although no distinct fault plane was identified in the trench, the deformation caused by fault activity is clearly recorded in the trench stratigraphy. To further refine the timing of fault activity, this study collected an OSL sample (WOSL-11) from the bottom of the U5 loess layer (Figure 9), which can define the most recent age of the activity of the fault. OSL dating results indicate that the sediment age of the U5 loess layer is 15.5 ± 0.9 ka B.P., before the Holocene.
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Figure 9. Photomosaic of east wall of EJY trench (A) and the corresponding trench map with results for OSL ages (B).
Figure 9. Photomosaic of east wall of EJY trench (A) and the corresponding trench map with results for OSL ages (B).
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Since no fault outcrop was revealed in the trench, a GPR survey line was deployed perpendicular to the linear scarp on the east side of the trench to identify the morphological and structural features of the fault in the bedrock layer. At 160 m along the GPR profile (EJY trench location), a poorly coherent reflection anomaly was observed, interpreted as structural deformation caused by fault activity. The fault’s upper break point is at a depth of 3–4 m, without disturbing the near surface alluvial deposits. The vertical offset along the fault trace is approximately 1 m (Figure 10). This confirms the existence of the JRNF, with its most recent activity likely occurring before the deposition of U5 in the EJY trench.

5. Discussion

5.1. Analysis of Tectonic Activity of JRNF

To constrain the specific activity age of the JRNF, two OSL dating results were obtained (Table 2). The WOSL-9 result indicates that the most recent surface rupture event revealed in the HQB trench has an upper age limit of 378 ± 31 ka B.P., suggesting surface rupture due to fault activity in the late Middle Pleistocene. Considering that the WOSL-9 test results are older than the estimated age, we requested further data analysis from the laboratory. The results indicate that the sample growth curve is still increasing, and the obtained De values are relatively reliable. The De value for the sample Kf at T250 was 1333 Gy, and at T290 it was 1336 Gy. The results obtained at both temperatures are consistent, showing a stable De value and no issue of incomplete bleaching. Based on the above, the results for this sample are reliable, and the obtained age can essentially represent the sedimentation age of the sample. The WOSL-9 sampling point, U4, is a sedimentary lens within two alluvial fan deposits, primarily sourced from older bedrock mountains to the north, which is the Middle Miocene Hannuoba basalt [39], presuming the WOSL-9 age may be older than the age of the actual deposition. Additionally, the HQB trench reveals that U5 shows stratigraphic truncation, while U6 remains undisturbed. Based on the degree of sediment consolidation, it is inferred that the JRNF exhibited sustained activity during the Late Pleistocene, ceasing activity prior to the deposition of U6. The WOSL-10 result indicates that the loess layer U5 in the EJY trench was deposited at 15.5 ± 0.9 ka B.P., with no evidence of disturbance, suggesting that the JRNF has shown no signs of activity during the Holocene.

5.2. Evolution of Tectonic Activity and Geomorphology

The series of piedmont normal faults along the northern margin of the Ordos Block are not only controlled by the extension of the rift zone, but source mechanism analyses of moderate–strong earthquakes suggest they are strike-slip faults. This is due to the compressional force from the southwest caused by the Tibetan Plateau; the eastward movement of the Ordos Block is faster than that of its northern neighbor, the Yinshan-Yanshan Block, which results in a left-lateral strike-slip movement along the piedmont faults between the two blocks [40]. Our results suggest that the JRNF is distributed along the northern boundary of the Jining Basin, playing a critical role in controlling the basin’s evolution. The fault exhibits characteristics of a normal fault at the mountain-basin boundary, with its activity resulting in a height difference of approximately 100–200 m between the Jining Basin and the northern mountain ranges; it does not exhibit the characteristics of sinistral strike-slip (Figure 2A). The GPS velocity field shows that the eastward extrusion of the Ordos block gradually shifts towards the south [20]. At its northeastern corner, the stress gradually decreases and the direction becomes nearly vertical to the boundary between the two blocks (the Ordos Block and the Yinshan-Yanshan Block). The normal fault characteristics of the JRNF and its activity are significantly weaker than those of the large piedmont normal faults along the northern margin of the Ordos block, which also aligns with the tectonic stress characteristics of the region.
In conclusion, the JRNF is inferred to be a fault active during the late Middle Pleistocene to the Late Pleistocene. Based on the tectonic–climate coupling model proposed by other researchers [41,42,43,44], the fault shows weak activity during the Late Quaternary, aligning with the slow uplift pattern of the eastern Yinshan Mountains [45]. As the region lies in an arid to semi-arid climate zone with minimal precipitation in the mountainous areas, Late Middle Pleistocene alluvial deposits are buried at a shallow depth of approximately 3 m. Under this tectonic–climate model, the tectonic geomorphology formed by fault activity has been well preserved. Upon comparing the findings of other faults in the area [46,47,48], this study concludes that the JRNF governs the northern boundary of a small faulted basin system. The arid environment results in sedimentation rates at the mountain front being significantly lower than those in the basin interior, making the interpreted fault activity seem higher than its actual activity.

5.3. Seismic Hazard Potential

The latest surface-rupturing event revealed in the HQB trench indicates a minimum vertical displacement of approximately 1 m per single event. The activity of the JNRF has largely shaped the boundary between the bedrock mountain range and the basin. It is inferred that the rupture length during surface-rupturing events is consistent with its morphological extent along the mountain front, approximately 50 km. The empirical magnitude estimation formula for normal faults from Wells and Coppersmith [49] is as follows:
Mw = 4.86 + 1.32 × log D
The magnitude of a surface–rupturing earthquake on this fault is estimated to be approximately Mw 7.1. Additionally, as Mw relies on surface waves, it is not suitable for deeper earthquakes, and the M scale was validated specifically for Southern California, not globally. The magnitude was further estimated according to the relationship between the moment magnitude Mw and the seismic moment M0, using the formula proposed by Hanks and Kanamori [50], as follows:
Mw = 2/3 × log M0 − 10.7
At the same time, due to the smaller scale of the JRNF, it may not be applicable to the estimation formula by Wells and Coppersmith [49]. Das et al. developed a generalized seismic moment magnitude scale Mwg to improve the consistency of Mw for a wider range [51,52]. The Mw, M0, and Mwg connection can be made as follows:
Mwg = log M0/1.36 − 12.68
Based on Mwg, it replaces the traditional Mw scale to ensure superior accuracy, particularly for intermediate and smaller earthquakes [52], from which we derived a magnitude of Mwg 6.95.
Since the JNRF ceased activity only before the Late Pleistocene at 15.5 ± 0.9 ka, it may still be classified as an active fault based on the age criteria of most researchers [53,54,55,56,57]. Although the fault is not very close to the densely populated area of Ulanqab City, its potential seismic hazard cannot be overlooked. Currently, the human-used land within 2 km of JRNF is mainly agricultural land (Figure 2B), and future construction should still avoid the fault zone.

6. Conclusions

This study utilized a combination of field seismic geological surveys, geomorphological measurements, trench excavations, and GPR surveys to determine the spatial distribution and tectonic geomorphology of the Jining River Northern Margin Fault (JRNF). Based on chronological testing results, combined with fault outcrop observations and stratigraphic markers, the activity characteristics of the JRNF since the Quaternary period were determined, leading to the following conclusions:
  • The JRNF is a NEE-trending frontal normal fault along the northern boundary of the Jining Basin, with a length of approximately 50 km. The fault controls the evolution of the Jining Basin, creating 1.5–1.8 m scarps at Hanqingba and 5.2–7.7 m scarps at Erjia Yan.
  • The activity of the JRNF has gradually decreased since the late Middle Pleistocene (approximately 400 ka). During the Late Pleistocene, its activity did not rupture the surface, only exerting limited geomorphological control. The fault is classified as a late Middle Pleistocene to Late Pleistocene fault with no activity during the Holocene.
  • A single surface-rupturing event on the JRNF could result in vertical displacements of up to 1 m. The estimated maximum earthquake magnitude is Mwg 6.95, indicating a significant seismic risk for the Jining Basin region.

Author Contributions

Writing—original draft, Methodology, Formal analysis, Visualization, Investigation, and Software, H.M.; Writing—review and editing, Funding acquisition, Supervision, and Conceptualization, S.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was supported by the Investigation of Technological Basic Resources, the Ministry of Science and Technology, China [2021FY100100].

Data Availability Statement

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

Acknowledgments

We extend our gratitude to Renmao Yuan and his team for providing technical support in the GPR survey. We thank Google Earth for the free access satellite images used in this study. We thank the anonymous reviewers and editors for their helpful comments on the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

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Figure 2. Digital elevation model (DEM) shaded relief map (A) and satellite image interpretation (B) of JRNF (elevation data with a 30 m resolution were obtained from the Geospatial Data Cloud ASTER GDEM for the DEM, and the image data from Google Earth (accessed on 2 August 2023)).
Figure 2. Digital elevation model (DEM) shaded relief map (A) and satellite image interpretation (B) of JRNF (elevation data with a 30 m resolution were obtained from the Geospatial Data Cloud ASTER GDEM for the DEM, and the image data from Google Earth (accessed on 2 August 2023)).
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Figure 3. High-resolution satellite image of the trench in Hanqingba Village (image data from Google Earth (accessed on 2 August 2023)) and its geomorphological units (A). Topography profiles (HQB and HQB-W) of fault scarps are set along the HQB trench (B).
Figure 3. High-resolution satellite image of the trench in Hanqingba Village (image data from Google Earth (accessed on 2 August 2023)) and its geomorphological units (A). Topography profiles (HQB and HQB-W) of fault scarps are set along the HQB trench (B).
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Figure 4. Orthomosaic image (A) and DEM (B) at Site 1 based on UAV data.
Figure 4. Orthomosaic image (A) and DEM (B) at Site 1 based on UAV data.
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Figure 7. High-resolution satellite image of the trench in Erjiayan Village (image data from Google Earth (accessed on 2 August 2023)) and its geomorphological units (A). Topography profiles (EJY–E, EJY, and EJY–W) of fault scarps are set along the EJY trench (B).
Figure 7. High-resolution satellite image of the trench in Erjiayan Village (image data from Google Earth (accessed on 2 August 2023)) and its geomorphological units (A). Topography profiles (EJY–E, EJY, and EJY–W) of fault scarps are set along the EJY trench (B).
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Figure 8. Orthomosaic image (A) and DEM (B) at Site 2 based on UAV data.
Figure 8. Orthomosaic image (A) and DEM (B) at Site 2 based on UAV data.
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Figure 10. Profile of Erjiayan GPR line (A) and magnified view of the fault (B). The white dashed box in (A) indicates the area of (B). The orange area in (B) represents the U4 stratigraphic unit of the EJY trench, while the brown area in (B) indicates the disrupted stratum with offset reflection axes.
Figure 10. Profile of Erjiayan GPR line (A) and magnified view of the fault (B). The white dashed box in (A) indicates the area of (B). The orange area in (B) represents the U4 stratigraphic unit of the EJY trench, while the brown area in (B) indicates the disrupted stratum with offset reflection axes.
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Table 1. Earthquake statistics in and around the study area in the past decade (data from CENC, https://news.ceic.ac.cn/ (accessed on 25 October 2022)).
Table 1. Earthquake statistics in and around the study area in the past decade (data from CENC, https://news.ceic.ac.cn/ (accessed on 25 October 2022)).
TimeMagnitude (M)Latitude (°)Longitude (°)Depth (km)
2021–01–24 09:53:073.240.65111.4913
2021–01–23 10:59:003.840.44110.2410
2020–10–16 21:44:333.840.67110.0122
2020–08–31 07:09:55340.37111.9815
2020–05–19 07:23:073.240.69113.912
2020–03–30 16:20:59440.14111.8514
2018–01–31 07:05:242.940113.815
2016–12–07 02:00:403.341.92112.7110
2016–01–19 16:19:00340.46110.628.2
2015–12–27 19:46:361.640.35111.81.8
2015–10–29 22:03:192.540.61111.9419.3
2013–02–22 12:02:043.340113.95
Table 2. Results of OSL dating.
Table 2. Results of OSL dating.
Figure No.Sample SiteDepth (m)Test MineralU (ppm)Th (ppm)K (%)Dy (Gy/ka)E.D (Gy)Age (ka B.P.)
WOSL–9HQB Trench2Kf1.45 ± 0.067.33 ± 0.291.92 ± 0.083.5 ± 0.21333 ± 91378 ± 31
WOSL–11EJY Trench2.2Q1.86 ± 0.0711.57 ± 0.461.85 ± 0.073.2 ± 0.149.0 ± 2.515.5 ± 0.9
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Ma, H.; Dong, S. Tectonic Geomorphology and Quaternary Activity Characteristics of the Jining River Northern Margin Fault, Inner Mongolia, North China. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 4610. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15094610

AMA Style

Ma H, Dong S. Tectonic Geomorphology and Quaternary Activity Characteristics of the Jining River Northern Margin Fault, Inner Mongolia, North China. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(9):4610. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15094610

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Ma, Haowen, and Shaopeng Dong. 2025. "Tectonic Geomorphology and Quaternary Activity Characteristics of the Jining River Northern Margin Fault, Inner Mongolia, North China" Applied Sciences 15, no. 9: 4610. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15094610

APA Style

Ma, H., & Dong, S. (2025). Tectonic Geomorphology and Quaternary Activity Characteristics of the Jining River Northern Margin Fault, Inner Mongolia, North China. Applied Sciences, 15(9), 4610. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15094610

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