Supplement Use Among Athletes: Insights from Gyms in Sarajevo

Abstract

This study aimed to examine the habits, attitudes, and consumption patterns of food supplements (FS) among gym users in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, with respect to gender, age, and training experience. Understanding these behaviors is essential given the rising global trend in FS use, often without professional guidance, which can have implications for individual health and public awareness. By investigating local patterns, this study seeks to provide valuable insights into the motivations and risks associated with supplement consumption, contributing to evidence-based recommendations and policy-making in the field of fitness and nutrition. Methods: Cross-sectional data were collected from various fitness centers using an online questionnaire composed of 21 questions divided into three segments. A total of 614 participants (mean ± SD: 32.77 ± 9.82 years), including both male (67.8%) and female (32.2%) gym users, took part in the study. Results: Participants predominantly belonged to the 36–45 age group, with 70.0% (p < 0.001) reporting more than one year of regular gym attendance, and 40.4% indicating regular FS consumption (p < 0.05). Supplements were mainly used to support faster recovery (29.1%, p < 0.05) and muscle growth (25%, p < 0.05). Magnesium was the most commonly used supplement, equally favored across genders and age groups. Creatine, fish oil capsules, and multivitamins were also frequently consumed (p < 0.05). Self-prescription emerged as the predominant method of FS use (40.3%, p < 0.05), followed by advice from gym coaches (21.8%), with only 5.6% of participants receiving guidance from a nutritionist. Conclusions: The findings highlight a societal trend toward self-directed FS use, often influenced by informal sources, underscoring the importance of further research and the development of targeted, evidence-based educational strategies. Males reported higher FS consumption, with younger users more focused on muscle gain and older individuals prioritizing health maintenance. The reliance on non-expert recommendations raises concerns about the safety and effectiveness of FS usage in the fitness community.

1. Introduction

Physical activity and its benefits have been known for centuries [1] and the World Health Organization (WHO) has recently published guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour [2], highlighting important health benefits related to physical activity. For example, in adults, physical activity provides benefits for various health outcomes, including reduced all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality, lower risk of developing hypertension, certain site-specific cancers, and type-2 diabetes, as well as improvements in mental and cognitive health [2]. Nevertheless, a notable increase in the number of individuals attending fitness centres is not mainly driven by health aspirations, but aesthetic and socialization goals as well [3]. With this increase, surveys show a parallel increase in food supplement (FS) use [4,5].

Food supplements encompass a wide range of products designed for ingestion to fulfil essential nutritional needs [6]. Additionally, many professional athletes, and more recently, recreational athletes, use FS or other “magic substances” to improve or optimize exercise performance. For example, it has been shown that creatine monohydrate is the most widely used supplement among power and strength athletes, while caffeine has been demonstrated to enhance alertness, endurance, and performance in both aerobic and anaerobic activities [7]. The prevalence of FS use was previously reported [8] but only a small number of studies are reporting poor nutritional knowledge among athletes, coaches and trainers [9,10,11,12]. Since it has recently become somewhat of a ‘must’ to use FS among professional athletes, an increasing number of individuals engaged in recreational sports are considering FS as a prerequisite for performance improvement and a shortcut to achieving their goals. Furthermore, the prevalence and usage of FS among recreational gym users is endorsed by athletes advertising supplement products shaping the perception and overstating the benefits, thus omitting the importance of deep understanding of nutrition and physiology [13]. Peer influence, such as recommendations from other gym users and trainers, is having a significant impact on attitudes and usage patterns, respectively. Attitudes and practices regarding FS are also influenced by individual beliefs, personal goals, social norms, economic status, and marketing strategies [8].

Based on previous findings [14,15,16], it is evident that gym and fitness users associate FS with several categories, including: (a) the improvement of muscle growth and strength, with a preference for protein and creatine supplements; (b) the enhancement of energy and performance, favouring pre-workout supplements containing caffeine or similar ingredients; (c) the reduction of recovery time, with supplements aimed at minimizing muscle soreness; (d) the reduction of body fat, often using supplements marketed for metabolism enhancement; and (e) health-related benefits, such as the use of multivitamins. Numerous studies have yielded differing findings, though muscle mass gain and fat loss consistently emerge as key motivational factors [14,15].

Since FS use has greatly increased over the last few decades, studies evaluating FS usage among gym-goers have begun to emerge. For example, there are studies from Egypt [14], Spain [15], Brazil [16], and Switzerland [17], as well as comparisons between urban and rural areas [18], and there are even programs regularly evaluating national health and nutrition, such as those operating in the US since the early 1960s [2]. However, to the best of our knowledge, no studies reporting FS use in Bosnia and Herzegovina are yet available. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the FS habits of a sample of gym-goers in Sarajevo, Bosnia, and Herzegovina. Additionally, the study addressed the knowledge gaps identified in previous research [19], focusing on gym users’ deficiencies in knowledge regarding the safety and potential contamination of FS, the placebo effect, and the overuse and dependency associated with their consumption—particularly in relation to dietary optimization and consultation with experts, and how these aspects differ by gender, age, and training experience. Finally, considering the authors’ experience and previous findings stating that adequate financial resources [20] and access to unbiased information sources [8] are essential prerequisites for the appropriate use of food supplements, it was hypothesized that attitudes, habits, and usage patterns among gym-goers in Bosnia and Herzegovina differ significantly from those reported in previous findings, primarily due to economic and sociocultural factors.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design and Population

This cross-sectional study was conducted from March to June 2024 in various fitness centres across the city of Sarajevo, Bosnia, and Herzegovina. Inclusion criteria required participants to be aged between 18 and 45, regularly attending gyms, and actively engaged in physical activities. Exclusion criteria included individuals with health conditions that could impact the findings, pregnant or breastfeeding women, professional athletes, or those failing to meet the inclusion criteria.

The final sample consisted of 614 participants of both genders with a mean age (mean ± SD) 32.77 ± 9.82 years. The sample size was calculated based on the recommendations of Pourhoseingholi et al. (2013) [21], ensuring adequate statistical power while accounting for potential data loss.

2.2. Participant Profiles and Measurement Tools

Data collection was conducted using an online questionnaire adapted from Finamore et al. (2022) [22] and distributed via Google Forms. This digital platform was chosen for its accessibility, practicality, and environmental benefits. Access to the questionnaire was facilitated through QR codes displayed in 17 fitness centres across the city of Sarajevo.

The questionnaire consisted of 21 items, systematically organized into three thematic sections:

Section I: This section focused on demographic and lifestyle characteristics, including age, gender, educational attainment, history of illness, smoking, and alcohol consumption.

Section II: This part assessed physical activity-related variables, encompassing the type, frequency, and duration of training, as well as participants’ history of consultations with nutrition professionals.

Section III: This section examined dietary supplement usage behaviours, specifically the types of supplements consumed, motivations for use, timing of intake, and sources of information.

The questionnaire included a mix of categorical (multiple-choice) items and Likert-scale items, the latter capturing levels of agreement or frequency (e.g., ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”). Categorical variables were used to classify fixed responses, such as types of supplements, while Likert-type items evaluated attitudes and motivations related to supplementation.

To ensure the clarity, appropriateness, and reliability of the instrument, a pilot study was conducted involving 19 undergraduate students from the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education. The pilot study employed a test-retest protocol with a 10-day interval between administrations. To minimize potential learning effects during the re-test phase, selected items were presented with inverted scaling.

Content validity was assessed through expert reviews conducted by two licensed nutritionists. Measures of internal consistency demonstrated acceptable reliability, with Cronbach’s alpha values ranging from 0.747 to 0.923. Pearson’s correlation coefficients ranged from 0.67 to 0.93, yielding an overall correlation coefficient of 0.84, indicating a high level of test-retest reliability. Based on feedback from the pilot study, minor revisions were made to improve question clarity and structure. Although the questionnaire was adapted from established instruments, this was its first application in the Bosnian and Herzegovinian gym-goer population.

2.3. Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis was performed using IBM SPSS version 22.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). The normality of the variables was evaluated, with parametric tests used for data following a normal distribution and non-parametric tests applied to data with a non-normal distribution. The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test was employed for samples larger than 50, while the Shapiro–Wilk test was used for samples smaller than 50 [23]. Nominal variables were expressed as percentages (frequencies), and continuous variables were presented as mean (standard deviation, SD). To compare two categorical variables, Chi-square, Fisher’s Exact, and Monte Carlo tests were applied as appropriate. For comparisons between a categorical and a continuous variable, the Student’s t-test and Mann–Whitney U test were utilized. The consumption of FS and other relevant variables was further analysed using binary logistic regression (with a 95% confidence interval) to explore associations. All statistical tests were two-tailed, with statistical significance defined as p ≤ 0.05.

3. Results

Table 1. Participant profiles (mean ± standard deviation, percentages).

Characteristics	Total Participants (n = 614)	Supplements Consumers (n = 248; 40.4%)	Supplements Non-Consumers (n = 366; 59.6%)	p-Value
Gender, % (n)
Male	67.8% (416)	71.0% (176)	65.6% (240)	0.003 b
Female	32.2% (198)	29.0% (72)	34.4% (126)
Age, % (n)
18–25 years old	34.9% (214)	38.7% (96)	32.2% (118)	0.001 b
26–35 years old	22.8% (140)	29.0% (72)	18.6% (68)
36–45 years old	42.3% (260)	32.3% (80)	49.2% (180)
Height, cm	178.33 ± 9.42	178.37 ± 9.12	178.30 ± 9.63	0.302 a
Mass, kg	81.55 ± 17.38	81.21 ± 15.09	81.71 ± 18.79	0.285 a
BMI, kg/m2	25.41 ± 3.80	25.36 ± 3.40	25.45 ± 4.05	0.253 b
Educational qualifications, % (n)
Undergraduate	51.1% (314)	52.4% (130)	50.3% (184)	0.602 b
Graduate	48.8% (300)	47.6% (118)	49.7% (182)
Smoking status, % (n)
Non-Smoker	67.8% (416)	73.4% (182)	63.9% (234)	0.014 b
Smoker	32.2% (198)	26.6% (66)	36.1% (132)
Gym membership duration, % (n)
<1 month	17.3% (106)	5.6% (14)	25.1% (92)	0.008 b
1–6 months	10.7% (66)	11.3% (28)	10.4% (38)
6–12 months	2.0% (12)	2.4% (6)	1.6% (6)
>1 year	70% (430)	80.6% (200)	62.8% (230)

p-values (p ≤ 0.05) for group comparisons were assessed by ^a Mann–Whitney U Test or ^b Chi-squared.

depicts the sociodemographic and physical characteristics of the participants. The majority were older adults, with 42.3% aged between 36 and 45 years, predominantly male (67.8%), and undergraduates (51.2%). The Body Mass Index (BMI), calculated from self-reported weight and height, predominantly fell within the normal range at 46.9%, with 40.7% of respondents categorized as overweight, and 10.1% categorized as obese.

In terms of health conditions, 91.4% of the participants reported no history of illness, whereas 8.6% indicated a history of illness, though the specific types were not detailed. Furthermore, 65.3% of the participants indicated alcohol consumption, while 67.8% classified themselves as non-smokers.

Table 2. A predictive logistic regression model for identifying fitness motivation based on age and gender.

		Age						Gender
Fitness Motivation	Supplements Consumers (n = 248)	18–25 Year Old (n = 96)	26–35 Year Old (n = 72)	36–45 Years Old (n = 80)	p-Value		OR (95% CI)	Male, M (n = 176)	Female, F (n = 72)	p-Value		OR (95% CI)
Increase muscle mass/weight	25.0% (62)	32 (51.6%)	20 (32.3%)	10 (12.5%)	0.005 *	18–25 26–35 36–45	2.033 (1.135–3.642) 1.227 (0.659–2.284) 0.319 (0.152–0.667)	80.6% (50)	19.4% (12)	0.049 *	M F	1.984 (0.984–4.000) 0.504 (0.250–1.016)
Muscle repair or recovery	29.4% (73)	22 (30.1%)	20 (27.4%)	31 (42.5%)	0.067			79.5% (58)	20.5% (15)	0.057
Increase performance	13.7% (34)	18 (52.9%)	8 (23.5%)	8 (23.5%)	0.182			82.4% (28)	17.6% (6)	0.115
Disease prevention	6.0% (15)	2 (14.3%)	8 (57.1%)	4 (28.6%)	0.041 *	18–25 26–35 36–45	0.248 (0.54–1.134) 3.542 (1.183–10.606) 0.832 (0.253–2.737)	93.4% (14)	6.6% (1)	0.014 *	M F	1.962 (1.237–3.145) 0.163 (0.021–1.263)
Increase muscle strength	6.5% (16)	10 (62.5%)	4 (25.0%)	2 (2.5%)	0.097			68.8% (11)	31.3% (5)	0.840
Replacement meal	2.4% (6)	2 (28.6%)	4 (57.1%)	1 (14.3%)	0.238			71.4% (5)	2.8% (2)	0.978
Staying healthy	16.9% (42)	10 (23.8%)	8 (19.0%)	24 (57.2%)	<0.001 **	18–25 26–35 36–45	0.436 (0.203–0.934) 0.522 (0.229–1.191) 3.571 (1.802–7.077)	23.8% (10)	76.2% (32)	<0.001 **	M F	0.075 (0.034–0.166) 13.280 (6.030–29.248)

** p < 0.001; * p < 0.05.

reveals that a significant proportion of participants (80.6%) had been involved in regular physical activity for more than one year. The typical frequency of engagement was 3–5 sessions per week (48.4%), with each session lasting between 1 and 2 h (65.3%). Approximately 85% of the sample engaged in strength training. Approximately 30% adhered to a sport-specific diet, while 40.3% implemented a self-prescribed diet, and 21.8% relied on recommendations from a gym trainer.

Among the total sample, 40.4% of respondents reported using FS. In this group, the majority were male (71.0%; p < 0.05), primarily from the younger age category (38.7%) consisting of individuals aged between 18 and 25 years.

Figure 1 illustrates the types of FS used by the respondents. The most commonly used supplements included magnesium (29.5%), whey protein (27.0%), vitamin C (20.0%), and fish oil pills (17.6%).

Table 3. A predictive logistic regression model for identifying the age and gender of consumers of food supplements.

	Age						Gender
Food Supplements	18–25 Year Old (n = 96)	26–35 Year Old (n = 72)	36–45 Years Old (n = 80)	p-Value		OR (95% CI)	Male, M (n = 176)	Female, F (n = 72)	p-Value		OR (95% CI)
Amino acid	46.4% (26)	35.7% (20)	17.9% (12)	0.098 a			86.2% (50)	13.8% (8)	0.003 a	M F	0.905 (0.313–2.618) 1.105 (0.382–3.195)
Creatine	48.9% (46)	34.0% (32)	17.0% (16)	<0.001 a	18–25 26–35 36–45	1.863 (0.974–3.562) 2.007 (0.980–4.110) 0.156 (0.060–0.402)	89.4% (84)	10.6% (10)	<0.001 a	M F	4.072 (1.675–9.896) 0.246 (0.101–0.597)
Glutamine	28.6% (8)	14.3% (4)	57.1% (16)	0.009 b	18–25 26–35 36–45	0.586 (0.192–1.787) 0.291 (0.071–1.197) 6.211 (1.746–12.094)	92.9% (26)	7.1% (2)	0.007 b	M F	1.571 (0.281–8.780) 0.636 (0.114–3.557)
BCAA	38.5% (30)	25.6% (20)	35.9% (28)	0.631 a			82.0% (64)	17.9% (14)	0.009 a	M F	3.317 (1.398–7.873) 0.301 (0.127–0.716)
Whey protein	44.6% (74)	28.9% (48)	26.5% (44)	0.008 a	18–25 26–35 36–45	2.328 (1.126–4.814) 1.003 (0.473–2.124) 0.442 (0.216–0.906)	80.7% (134)	19.3% (32)	<0.001 a	M F	2.926 (1.311–6.533) 0.342 (0.153–0.763)
Casein protein	20% (4)	20.0% (4)	60.0% (12)	0.018 b	18–25 26–35 36–45	0.171 (0.038–0.777) 0.457 (0.101–2.074) 14.875 (3.329–66.454)	100% (20)	0.0% (0)	/	/	/
Multivitamins	28.6% (24)	42.9% (36)	28.6% (24)	0.002 a	18–25 26–35 36–45	0.707 (0.350–1.429) 3.857 (1.876–7.930) 0.320 (0.146–0.702)	83.3% (70)	16.7% (14)	0.002 a	M F	2.303 (0.969–5.472) 0.434 (0.183–1.032)
Vitamin C	38.2% (47)	26.0% (32)	35.8% (44)	0.424 a			65.9% (81)	34.1% (42)	0.078 a
Vitamin B	47.8% (33)	17.4% (12)	34.8% (24)	0.035 a	18–25 26–35 36–45	2.230 (1.005–4.950) 0.310 (0.125–0.768) 1.469 (0.627–3.438)	79.7% (55)	20.3% (14)	0.060 a
Fish oil pills	29.6% (32)	37.0% (40)	33.3% (36)	0.015 a	18–25 26–35 36–45	0.476 (0.246–0.924) 1.721 (0.867–3.418) 1.157 (0.570–2.347)	83.3% (90)	16.7% (18)	<0.001 a	M F	2.774 (1.198–6.423) 0.360 (0.156–0.835)
Caffeine	61.3% (19)	27.1% (4)	25.8% (8)	0.015 b	18–25 26–35 36–45	1.046 (0.485–2.255) 0.572 (0.168–1.949) 0.396 (0.111–1.420)	87.1% (27)	12.9% (4)	0.035 b	M F	1.845 (0.462–7.365) 0.542 (0.136–2.164)
Calcium	39.0% (23)	27.1% (16)	33.9% (20)	0.921 a			66.1% (39)	33.9% (20)	0.346 a
Magnesium	38.1% (69)	28.7% (52)	33.1% (60)	0.884 a			71.3% (129)	28.7% (52)	0.863 a
Herbal supplements	32.2% (19)	27.1% (16)	40.7% (24)	0.266 a			79.7% (47)	20.3% (12)	0.092 a

p-values (p ≤ 0.05) for group comparisons were assessed by ^a Chi-squared or ^b Fisher’s exact tests.

shows a statistically significant gender difference in FS usage patterns, with males (71.0%) consuming supplements more frequently than females (29.0%) (p < 0.001). Significant gender differences (p < 0.001) were also observed in the use of amino acid pills (86.2%), creatine (89.4%), glutamine (92.9%), branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) (81.1%), protein powders (whey and casein) (80.7%; 100%), multivitamins (83.3%), B vitamin (79.7%), fish oil pills (83.3%), caffeine (87.1%) and herbal supplements (79.7%), all of which were more prevalent among males. While younger respondents used more supplements than older ones, no significant differences were found between age groups. However, specific product consumption showed statistically significant differences (p < 0.034), with higher usage of creatine (48.9%), whey protein (44.6%), B vitamins (47.8%), and caffeine (61.3%) among younger participants (18–25 years old). In contrast, multivitamins (42.9%) and fish oil pills (37.0) were used significantly more by the middle-aged respondents (aged 26–35) while glutamine (57.1%) and casein protein (57.1%) were used more by older respondents (aged 36-45) compared to other age groups (p < 0.0023).

The most reported reasons for consuming FS were muscle repair or recovery (29.8%), increase muscle mass or weight (25.8%), treatment of medical problems (15.3%), and increase performance (13.7%) (Table 2). Among males, the top reasons were muscle repair or recovery (33.0%), increase muscle mass/weight (29.5%), and increase performance (15.9%). Women, on the other hand, primarily cited treatment of medical problems (staying healthy) (38.9%), muscle repair or recovery (22.2%), and increase muscle mass/weight (16.7%) as their main motivations. When comparing age groups, younger participants (aged 18–25) were more likely to mention increase muscle strength (71.4%), increase performance (52.9%) and increase muscle mass/weight (50.0%) as their reasons for starting FS use, while older participants (aged 36–45) emphasized staying healthy (52.6%) and muscle repair or recovery (43.2%). Notably, only 4 (1.6%) respondents selected “Weight loss” as a motivation for using FS.

The most frequently reported FS recommendation sources were self-prescribed (40.3%), gym trainer (21.8%), internet (15.3%), and doctors (11.3%). Women showed a stronger preference for obtaining FS recommendations from medical experts (30.6% vs. 3.4%), while men leaned towards self-prescription (45.5% vs. 27.8%) (

Table 4. Analysis of the sample based on the type and timing of sports participation and dietary habits.

			Age				Sex
Question	Option	Supplements Consumers (n = 248)	18–25 Year Old (n = 96)	26–35 Year Old (n = 72)	36–45 Years Old (n = 80)	p-Value	Males	Females	p-Value
Physical activity—period	Less than 1 month	5.6% (14)	2.1% (2)	0.0% (0)	15.0% (12)	<0.001 a	0.0% (0)	19.4% (14)	<0.001 a
	1–6 months	11.3% (28)	8.3% (8)	11.1% (8)	15.0% (12)		5.7% (10)	25.0% (18)
	7–12 months	2.4% (6)	2.1% (2)	0.0% (0)	5.0% (4)		2.3% (4)	2.8% (29)
	More than 1 year	80.6% (200)	87.5% (84)	88.9% (64)	65.0% (52)		92.0% (162)	52.8% (38)
Training per week—times	Less than 3 times a week	21.8% (54)	6.3% (6)	33.3% (24)	30.0% (24)	<0.001 a	13.6% (24)	41.7% (30)	<0.001 a
	3–5 times a week	48.4% (120)	58.3% (56)	27.8% (20)	55.0% (44)		53.4% (94)	36.1% (26)
	More than 5 times a week	29.8% (74)	35.4 (34)	38.9% (28)	15.0% (12)		33.0% (58)	22.2% (16)
Training per day—hours	Less than 1 h per day	19.4% (48)	12.5% (12)	22.2% (16)	25.0% (20)	0.008 a	11.4% (20)	38.9% (28)	<0.001 a
	1–2 h per day	65.3% (162)	64.6% (62)	61.1% (44)	70.0% (56)		68.2% (120)	58.3% (42)
	More than 2 h per day	15.3% (38)	22.9% (22)	16.7% (12)	5.0% (4)		20.5% (36)	2.8% (2)
Physical activity—typology	Strength training	85.5% (212)	95.8% (92)	94.4% (68)	65.0% (52)	<0.001 a	88.6% (156)	77.8% (56)	0.028 a
	Cardio-fitness activities	14.5% (36)	4.2% (4)	5.6% (4)	35.0% (28)		11.4% (20)	22.2% (16)
Special diet—occurrence	Yes	30.6% (76)	29.2% (28)	38.9% (28)	25.0% (20)	0.169	30.7% (54)	30.6% (22)	0.984
	No	69.4% (172)	70.8% (68)	61.1 (44)	75.0% (60)		69.3% (122)	69.4% (50)
Supplement—recommendation	Gym trainer	21.8% (54)	26.0% (26)	16.7% (12)	20% (16)	<0.001 a	21.6% (38)	22.2% (16)	<0.001 a
	Nutritionist	5.6% (14)	6.3% (6)	5.6% (4)	5.0% (4)		5.7% (10)	5.6% (4)
	Friend	5.6% (14)	14.6% (14)	0.0% (0)	0.0% (0)		6.8% (12)	2.8% (2)
	Internet	15.3% (38)	6.3% (6)	33.3% (24)	10.0% (8)		17.0% (30)	11.1% (8)
	Self-prescribed	40.3% (100)	33.3% (32)	33.3% (24)	55.0% (44)		45.5% (80)	27.8% (20)
	Medical doctor	11.3% (28)	12.5% (12)	11.1% (8)	10.0% (8)		3.4% (6)	30.6% (22)

p-values (p ≤ 0.05) for group comparisons were assessed by ^a Chi-squared.

).

4. Discussion

This study aimed to examine the FS habits of a sample of gym-goers in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Our findings indicated that food supplementation is a prevalent practice (40.4%), particularly among older males engaging in regular physical activity. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study conducted in Bosnia and Herzegovina to examine food supplementation habits among gym-goers. These results are noteworthy, as despite a wealth of research on supplement use among athletes [24], there is a notable lack of information regarding the supplement consumption habits of individuals who go to gyms for personal, non-competitive reasons.

In this study, 40.4% of gym-goers reported using FS, reflecting a higher rate of supplementation compared to similar research, where adherence ranged from 29.2% to 39.6% [14,15,16,18,25], although the results are significantly lower than those observed in other studies [17,23,26,27,28]. There are notable gender disparities in supplement usage, with males utilizing supplements at a significantly higher rate than females (71.0% compared to 29.0%; p < 0.001), corroborating prior findings [15,16,23] that indicate a pronounced male preference for FS. Several factors may contribute to the variations observed in supplementation rates across different studies. First, differences in geographic location and socioeconomic status could play a role. For example, urban areas with higher financial stability may see increased consumption of FS due to greater disposable income [13]. Additionally, variations in study methodologies, such as data collection methods, could influence participants’ responses.

A significant proportion of gym-goers who consumed FS primarily aimed to enhance muscle repair and recovery or to increase muscle mass. Our findings align with previous research [29,30,31,32], which indicated that the primary goal of FS use among males was to build muscle mass, while for females, the focus was maintaining health. Modern culture exerts increasing social pressure to conform to specific beauty ideals, associating thinness with femininity and muscularity with masculinity [33]. Societal expectations may compel individuals to engage in gym activities, not only for health reasons, but also to adhere to prevalent standards of attractiveness and gender roles.

The findings of this study also revealed that younger people were more likely to attend gyms for hypertrophy, but older people were more motivated by a desire to improve their general health. Social pressures related to physical appearance often drive younger individuals to focus on building muscle mass [33]. On the other hand, older adults tend to engage in physical training primarily to improve their overall physical health and emotional well-being [34]. Encouraging regular exercise in older populations is vital, as it helps manage symptoms of chronic illnesses, decreases the likelihood of fall-related fractures, and supports greater autonomy [35].

The literature on the preferred types of FS consumed by gym-goers is divided between protein supplements [23,36] and multivitamin and mineral supplements (MVMs) [22,37]. In this study, magnesium emerged as the most consumed supplement, with 29.5% of participants reporting its use. This finding is unexpected, as it does not align with the most frequently cited reason for supplementation—muscle mass increase—which would typically favour proteins and amino acids (ranked second and sixth, respectively). Gym-goers’ preference for MVMs may stem from the persistent belief that minerals and vitamins provide ergogenic benefits, enhancing athletic performance. While deficiencies in vitamins and minerals can indeed hinder physical performance, correcting these deficiencies usually leads to a restoration of performance rather than further improvement [38]. However, evidence supporting the efficacy of magnesium (Mg) supplementation in boosting muscle fitness for athletes or physically active individuals remains inconclusive. Since athletes and active individuals typically maintain optimal nutritional status [39], the effects of Mg supplementation may be less pronounced in this population. This conclusion is consistent with previous reviews, which found no significant impact of Mg supplementation on strength, anaerobic-lactic acid, or aerobic performance in athletes [39].

Regarding age and gender differences, younger individuals and male participants were more likely to use protein, creatine, and amino acid supplements. This trend can likely be attributed to the “muscle-building beauty cult” phenomenon [23,33], where younger people and males often focus on achieving aesthetic goals, such as muscle mass [40], as also observed in this analysis. Protein and creatine support these specific goals by accelerating results in a shorter time frame [41,42]. While proteins are crucial for growth and tissue repair [43], creatine is known to benefit high-intensity, short-duration exercises [44].

In contrast, older participants exhibited a different pattern, favouring supplements like MVMs, fish oil pills (omega-3), vitamin C, magnesium, and herbal supplements. These preferences are more focused on overall health, reflecting a common tendency among older individuals to choose supplements that promote their sense of well-being [45] and recovery. This focus on well-being was also evident when older participants were asked about their primary reasons for training.

The current findings highlight that self-prescription (40.3%) and gym trainers (21.8%) are a primary reference source for supplement recommendations. However, gym trainers’ knowledge of food supplementation often stems from anecdotal evidence rather than formal expertise [46]. This reliance on trainers, combined with the fact that the majority of supplement users in this study were undergraduates—who may have limited knowledge about proper supplementation—could partially explain the widespread use of supplements, including vitamins and minerals, observed in this study. Similarly, previous research has identified coaches and trainers as key influencers in supplement practices, with studies reporting that 29.3–50.5% of supplement users rely on coaches for advice [47,48,49], compared to 16.1–34.3% for doctors (healthcare professionals) [15,26,49], and 20–50% on internet and media [15,26,47,48].

The present study has shown that older adults generally prefer self-prescription, whereas women are more likely to engage in both self-prescribing and consulting medical professionals. The substantial dependence on questionable sources raises critical concerns about the safety and efficacy of supplements. In contrast to pharmaceutical medications, FS are frequently utilized without oversight from healthcare professionals, and numerous individuals consume them despite the limited scientific evidence validating their effectiveness [50]. Additionally, healthcare providers may possess inadequate knowledge regarding FS and the associated regulations [44]. In competitive gym environments, the dominant “more is better” mentality often leads to excessive supplement use, which may present health risks, particularly for non-professional athletes who do not have access to qualified nutritional advice [22].

The primary strength of this study is its focus on a relatively underexplored population group: non-professional gym users in western Balkan countries, particularly in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. This study represents the first of its kind conducted in this region. This study addresses a significant gap in the literature by focusing on recreational gym-goers, in contrast to the predominant emphasis on elite athletes or sports professionals in existing research. The data collection method enhances the study’s quality.

One limitation of the study is its reliance on self-reported data, which could impact the reliability of the findings, as participants’ responses are influenced by their perceptions and may not consistently reflect actual conditions. Self-reported anthropometric measures, including height and weight, may not precisely represent actual physiological values; however, they remain valuable for general weight classification. A further limitation is the geographically restricted sampling, confined to the capital city, Sarajevo. This may restrict the wider applicability and generalizability of the results. Future research should encompass a broader sample across the entire country to enhance the understanding of the topic. However, the reliance on self-reported data and a geographically restricted sample limited the findings’ generalizability. Future research should involve larger, more diverse samples to better understand food supplementation habits. These findings emphasize the complexity of supplementation practices among gym-goers and highlight the need for evidence-based guidance and further investigation in this area.

5. Conclusions

The study revealed that more than one-third (40.4%) of gym-goers in Sarajevo reported using food supplements, with a higher prevalence observed among older male participants who engage in regular physical activity. Statistically significant gender differences were noted, where males predominantly consumed supplements for muscle development, while females were more inclined towards general health-oriented supplementation. Age also emerged as a relevant factor, with younger individuals favoring performance-enhancing products, whereas older participants preferred health-supportive supplements, such as multivitamins and fish oil.

Based on the study findings, it is evident that new strategies for education on proper use of food supplements, especially among females should be implemented. These strategies might influence motivation priorities with focus on social networking and free education.