The Pursuit of Universality in Chinese Buddhism

Abstract

Having adopted, appropriated, and altered Indian forms of Buddhism, various schools of Chinese Buddhist thought inherited and transformed essential orientations of both Buddhism and traditional Chinese philosophy insofar as it exhibits a tendency toward seeking universality in its understanding of the world. Within the works of prominent figures and schools such as Sengzhao and the Tiantai school, Huayan, the Consciousness-Only school, and Chan Buddhism, Chinese Buddhist thought integrates the diversity of phenomena through the notion of a unifying “mind-consciousness”. This approach creates the framework for understanding the relationship between humans and all things based on the comprehensive nature of consciousness. Given this foundation, Chinese Buddhist thought places a high value on the equality of all beings, advocates for dismantling distinctions between individuals and the world, and transcends the distinctions of reality to pursue universal unity. By dissolving the boundaries of existence and non-existence, the self and things, and the individual ego, this philosophical outlook lays a cognitive foundation for eradicating the “discriminating mind” in daily life and offers insights into overcoming separatism and isolationism. The Chinese Buddhist pursuit of universal consistency, which is simultaneously of this world yet transcendent, reflects Buddhism’s profound concern for humanity’s shared destiny.

1. Introduction

Chinese traditions of Buddhist thought (Sinicized Buddhism) and their associated cultures of belief are the products of the exchange and transmissions between China and various world civilizations (particularly those with India). This development reflects both the global spread and evolution of Buddhist thought as well as the unique characteristics of traditional Chinese philosophy. Buddhism was introduced into China toward the end of the Han Dynasty, and as it spread widely across the Central Plains of China, large-scale translations of Buddhist texts and commentaries facilitated its fusion with the intellectual resources and linguistic expressions of traditional Chinese philosophy and religion. Over time, this interaction gave rise to Sinicized forms Buddhist philosophy that provided unique expression both to Buddhism as a world religion as well as traditional Chinese thought. Buddhist thought fundamentally aims to grasp the ultimate principles of the universe and the highest wisdom, thereby achieving a profound understanding of the nature and origin of all existence. Through this heightened understanding, Buddhism seeks to enable individuals to transcend worldly attachments and ultimately achieve liberation from suffering. In terms of theory, it exhibits a characteristic pursuit and elucidation of universality, namely to understand humanity’s overall destiny and attain spiritual liberation through a thorough understanding of the universal principles of the cosmos. This theoretical motivation and spiritual aspiration align with many of traditional Chinese philosophy’s orientations toward the pursuit of comprehensive unity, thereby giving rise to Chinese Buddhist thought’s emphasis on a unique kind of pursuit of universality. In terms of their intellectual pursuits, Buddhist thought shares common ground with traditional Chinese philosophy. However, there are fundamental differences between Buddhism and traditional Chinese philosophy regarding the question of what kind of universality both traditions perceive existing in the world.

The process of Buddhism’s Sinicization reached its zenith during the Southern and Northern dynasties (420–589 CE), as well as during the Sui (581–618 CE) and Tang (618–907 CE) dynasties. During this time, many Buddhist concepts were translated into Chinese and interpreted into the classical Chinese system of thought. Sengzhao 僧肇 used the concepts of “unreal emptiness” (bu zhenkong 不真空) and “immutability” (buqian 不遷) to explain the existence and transformation of the world. Major schools such as Tiantai 天台, Huayan 華嚴, the Consciousness-Only school 唯識宗, and Chan 禪 (Zen) Buddhism tended to interpret the world from the perspective of “the mind unifying all things” (xinrong wanyou 心融萬有) and “the interconnection of all things” (wanyou xiangtong 萬有相通). These schools integrated the diversity of the world into the intuitive experience of the individual mind, aligning with the Buddhist doctrine of understanding the world through emptiness and quiescence while also resonating with the pre-Qin Daoist and Zhuangzian idea of unity and “all things and I are one” (wanwu yu wo weiyi 萬物與我為一). Multiple interpretations of doctrines can surely be derived from the original texts of the aforementioned Buddhist schools, and the terminologies mentioned here may lead to varying interpretations. This paper adopts one explanatory approach amongst many possible approaches to view the process of the Sinification of Buddhism from the perspective of a “universal pursuit” with the intention of bringing to light a specific tendency toward establishing a unified understanding of the world.

In general, the Chinese Buddhist schools mentioned above advocated that all phenomena, or dharmas, are ultimately empty because all appearances arise from the mind. Both sentient and non-sentient beings, as well as the phenomena they exhibit, are seen as manifestations of the mind (illusory appearances). By incorporating the myriad phenomena of the world into the realm of mind-consciousness, they seek to attain a grasp of a universalized unity. Concepts such as “the emptiness of all dharmas” (zhufa xingkong 諸法性空), “one thought containing three thousand worlds” (yinian sanqian 一念三千), “the three realms are only mind” (sanjie weixin 三界唯心), “all dharmas are only consciousness” (wanfa weishi 萬法唯識), “mind and environment are mutually forgotten” (xinjing liangwang 心境兩忘), “all sentient beings inherently possess Buddha-nature” (yiqie zhongsheng xiyou foxing 一切眾生悉有佛性), and “the equality of all beings” (zhongsheng pingdeng 眾生平等) demonstrate this pursuit of universal unity. Through these ideas, Chinese Buddhism sought to achieve a unified understanding of a diverse world, thereby providing an epistemological foundation for spiritual liberation and enabling humanity to transcend the complexities of existence through mental realization.

2. The Emptiness of All Dharmas

Sengzhao, an early representative of Chinese Buddhism, skillfully synthesized traditional Chinese philosophies, especially those of the Daoist Lao-Zhuang school’s mysterious learning (xuanxue 玄學), to elucidate and interpret Buddhist principles. Like early Buddhist thought, which sought to understand ultimate reality, and also like the Lao-Zhuang school’s understanding the world through the Dao as the unifying principle of all things, Sengzhao employed the concept of “emptiness” (kong 空) to illustrate the dependent origination and inherent emptiness of the world that lies “between existence and non-existence” (youwu zhijian 有無之間). Sengzhao argued that the “emptiness” between existence and non-existence is “not true [reality]”, while “wherever one stands, this is the truth” (lichu jizhen 立處即真). Through this framework, he provided a comprehensive explanation of the world. His method of “using Laozi to talk about Buddhism” (Feng 2000, p. 116) reflects his integration of traditional Chinese thought with Buddhist ideas, thereby assimilating Buddhist concepts into the context of Chinese intellectual traditions.

The myriad manifestations of the world, whether illusions or realities, raise a question: Can they be traced back to a consistent foundation? This pursuit for wisdom is referred to as “marvelous delight” (miaoqu 妙趣) in Chinese Buddhism, and Sengzhao viewed such an inquiry as an exploration of the “ultimate foundation of things”, stating “the supreme emptiness from which all things arise is the marvelous delight of profound insight, the ultimate basis of all things. Without sage-like insight, how could one harmonize with the realm between existence and non-existence?” (Zhang 2010, p. 33) For Sengzhao, attaining the “profound insight” into the emptiness of the world is a mark of the enlightened wisdom of someone with “sage-like insight”. This insight represents the ability to comprehend the world in its entirety and to grasp a unified truth about its emptiness. Whether it be Buddhism developing out of India or the Neo-Daoism that was popular during Sengzhao’s time, the goal was ultimately to explore the ultimate of the world and seek the underlying truth behind all “the myriad things”, “the myriad appearances”, and “all dharmas”, for as it is said, “all dharmas arise through mutually dependent origination” (Zhang 2010, p. 1). Sengzhao’s understanding of the world reflects a mode of thinking that moves from the “many” to the “one”, embodying a perspective which tends toward that of unity. Sengzhao wrote the following:

All things have that according to which they are not existent; they have that according to which they are not non-existent. Because they have that according to which they are not existent, they are not absolutely existent even when they exist; because they have that according to which they are not non-existent, they are not truly non-existent even when they are non-existent. Though they are non-existent, they are not wholly non-existent. Non-existence does not eradicate emptiness. Though they exist, they are not wholly existent, existence is not true existence. Thus, though existence and non-existence appear different, they are unified and consistent.

(Zhang 2010, p. 52)

For humans, are all things essentially “existent” (you 有) or “non-existent” (wu 無)? Regardless of whether they are in fact either “existent” or “non-existent”, both have their own underlying justifications. The effort to find a shared foundation behind the diverse phenomena of the world represents the search to discover a unified mode of thinking and intention. Sengzhao believed that the essence of the world cannot be reduced to absolute existence or non-existence. From the perspective of the Middle Way, the myriad phenomena of the world are simultaneously in existence and non-existence, yet neither absolute existence nor absolute non-existence.

From the perspective of existence, phenomena of the world are neither “truly arising” (zhensheng 真生) nor “genuinely existent” (shiyou 實有). However, from the perspective of non-existence, they are not the utterly formless and absolutely “non-existent”. Nevertheless, whether as “existence”, “non-existence”, or even “emptiness”, all of these concepts are oriented toward providing a unified and consistent explanation and interpretation of the world. Tang Yongtong 湯用彤 likewise remarked the following:

Sengzhao, following the flourishing of Neo-Daoist discourse during the Wei and Jin dynasties, attuned himself to the mystery between existence and non-existence. Regarding the theory of non-existence, he revealed that all dharmas are not truly non-existent. Regarding the theories of existence promoted by Xiang Xiu 向秀, Guo Xiang 郭象, and Zhidun 支遁, he declared that all dharmas are not truly existent. He deeply recognized that all dharmas are neither existent nor non-existent, aligned himself with the ultimate truth, and navigated the Middle Way.

(Tang 2001, p. 55)

As Tang notes, Sengzhao related everything comprehensible within human consciousness to “emptiness”. Through the concept of “the emptiness of all dharmas”, he used the “Middle Way” to reconcile—or transcend—the “arguments between existence and non-existence” (youwu zhi zheng 有無之爭), an approach that possesses “the essence of truth” and which also formed a Chinese Buddhist theory of how to understand the reality of the world. This approach posits that existence is not truly real, non-existence is not purely void, and all dharmas arise through mutually dependent origination.

Sengzhao advocated replacing the notions of “existence” or “non-existence” with the universality of “emptiness” (kong 空) and used the “immutability” (buqian 不遷) of all things to counter the theory of the cycle of “birth and cessation” (shengmie 生滅). As mentioned earlier, Sengzhao contended that while the world appears diverse in its manifestations, it can ultimately be understood as achieving unity, or as he wrote, “though voices differ across a thousand paths, they converge on the same truth” (Zhang 2010, p. 24), He further elaborated on this:

Nothing comes, thus it does not race across past and present; nothing moves, so each thing resides within its own time. Therefore, although texts vary and schools differ, if one grasps the principle, how could differences in wording lead to confusion? Where others speak of permanence, I speak of transformation; where others speak of transformation, I speak of permanence. Although going and staying differ, they are unified and consistent.

(Zhang 2010, pp. 24–27)

This idea of continuity and change from past to present reflects humanity’s historical consciousness, while concepts of coming and going, as well as movement and stillness, represent the direct experience of the flow and transformation of the world. On the surface, the world manifests in various states according to each person’s perspective; some see it as “permanence”, and others see things as being in a state of “transformation”, with life and death as well as movement and stillness in constant flux. In this sublunary world, “life and death come and go, cold and heat succeed each other, and things flow onward—this is simply human nature”, yet Sengzhao problematizes this conventional view of life in the mundane world, declaring “but I say it is not thus” (Zhang 2010, p. 11). To him, worldly notions of flow and change do not reflect the true state of the world.

Transcending this superficial view of transformation, Sengzhao considers the world from a perspective of constancy, explaining that “the swirling mists and resting mountains remain still and tranquil, the rivers that pour forward do not flow, the clouds drifting like wild horses in the sky remain unmoved, and the sun and moon traversing the heavens do not circle around” (Zhang 2010, p. 17). From the perspective of the world as a whole, worldly transformations are neither truly coming nor going, nor shifting between motion and stillness, and thus one need not be perplexed by these concepts of going or staying, movement or rest. From a historical perspective, Zhang stated the following:

the merits of good deeds flow across generations and remain enduring; the dao persists through countless eons and becomes ever more steadfast. Mountains are built by the first heap of earth, and paths are paved by each step—this is because achievements are imperishable. Since they are imperishable, they remain unchanged even though they belong to the past.

(Zhang 2010, p. 28)

As opposed to the mere phenomena of the world, the efforts and spiritual contributions of the Buddha and sentient beings possess an eternal significance. The events of the past have not been extinguished because the fruits of today are rooted in their causes. Thus, history can be viewed from a unified perspective that unites the past and future in the present. From ordinary human perception, the world is in constant flux, and time flows ceaselessly. However, under Sengzhao’s framework of universalist thought, he emphasizes the world’s “non-movement and immutability” (budong buqian 不動不遷), asserting that “even if heaven and earth were overturned, none would say it is not tranquil; even if great floods reached the heavens, none would say that it is moving” (Zhang 2010, p. 29).

The emptiness of all dharmas, the immutability of all things, nirvana as the unity of existence and non-existence, and the merging of the internal and external into the stillness of the mind constitute the universal principles of the interaction between the self and things. Thus, in perceiving the world, Sengzhao stated “with the sage’s mind of unknowing, nothing remains unknown. This knowing of unknowing is what is called omniscience” (Zhang 2010, p. 68). The “knowing of unknowing” (wuzhi zhizhi 無知之知) is that which represents the highest degree of comprehensive unity as it dissolves the distinctions between specific phenomena. It allows one to perceive the world from the non-dualistic perspective of “oneness between the self and things” (wuwo weiyi 物我為一), using the “quietude of uselessness” to contemplate the world. Sengzhao describes this state as “stillness and utility are one in essence, arising from the same source but expressed in different names. There is no separate quietude beyond non-utilization to serve as its foundation” (Zhang 2010, p. 106). On the basis of absolute quietude and emptiness as the essence of universality, comprehending the world requires transcending distinctions of existence and non-existence and those of the internal and external. By employing the wisdom of nirvana, which encompasses quiescence and unity, one can grasp the world:

Beyond existence and non-existence lies a wondrous dao, neither existence nor non-existence, known as nirvana. Externally forms are without number, and internally is without mind. This and that are extinguished, merging the self and world into unity. Still and without traces, this is called nirvana.

(Zhang 2010, p. 11)

Sengzhao further described nirvana, saying “the dao of nirvana is one of vast, tranquil emptiness. The subtle mystery without form, it cannot be apprehended through form or name, nor understood with a conscious mind” (Zhang 2010, p. 180). Substantial forms and conscious minds are specific and finite, whereas nirvana’s wisdom transcends existence and non-existence, internal and external, the self and things, and birth and death. It holds the highest significance, enabling a comprehensive understanding of the world, or “transcending the ordinary, one ascends to the mysterious; encompassing the vast void, one attains long lasting” (Zhang 2010, p. 180).

According to Sengzhao, observing the world with an “empty mind” allows one to transcend the distinctions between existence and non-existence, thereby comprehending the world’s universal unity and achieving oneness between the world of objects and the world of the self. Sengzhao stated the following:

If one can empty their heart and mind, immerse their consciousness in true reality, and delicately preserve the harmony within, achieving a unified view of existence and non-existence, then even if their wisdom encompasses all the ten-thousand things, it would never begin to cling to the notion of existence. Likewise, traveling the unlit path, they would never begin to commit to non-existence. Thus, they can unite heaven and earth with a single aim without betraying what’s real, reflect all phenomena through mysterious insight, and achieve the unity of the self and things.

(Shi and Lou 2014, p. 179)

The oneness achieved by the empty mind leads to the integration of the objective and subjective worlds, attaining the wisdom of nirvana and transcending the disturbances and struggles of mundane existence. In traditional Daoist terms, this is akin to “non-intentional action allows nothing to be left undone” (wuwei er wubuwei 無為而無不為), and this was further described by Sengzhao as follows:

Thus, they harmonize with the dust and toil of the world, navigating the five realms of existence. Moving with serenity and arriving with ease, they remain calm and unperturbed, the through non-intentional action nothing is left undone.

(Zhang 2010, p. 98)

In the Buddhist tradition, the wisdom of nirvana enables one to overcome the fetters of worldly suffering, such as birth, aging, sickness, and death, and to enter a state of quiescence, detachment, and liberation, characterized by “unknowing and non-doing”.

From Sengzhao’s perspective, nirvana wisdom comprises three essential factors:

• Achieving a unified view of existence and non-existence (youwu yiguan 有無一觀) through universal emptiness: By dissolving the distinctions between existence and non-existence, one attains a unified understanding of the world.
• Uniting heaven and earth with a single purpose (qi tiandi weiyi zhi 齊天地為一旨): This aligns with Zhuangzi’s idea of “the Dao as one” in the Qi Wu Lun chapter, reflecting a unifying perspective that bridges the diverse phenomena of heaven and earth and eliminating dualistic thinking.
• Realizing the spiritual state of oneness between the self and things (wuwo weiyi 物我為一): This involves breaking down the boundaries between the mind and external objects, returning to an original state of harmony between the mind and world. These three factors are unified by the principle of universal consistency, reflecting a pervasive pursuit of universality across ontology, epistemology, and spiritual realization.

Amongst the various theories within Sengzhao’s sinicized form of Buddhist philosophy, “the emptiness of all dharmas” signifies that the world’s essence is empty and still, eternal and unchanging. He asserts that “when wisdom ceases to differentiate dharmas, both wisdom and dharmas share the same emptiness; there is no other emptiness, hence it is called the ‘emptiness of wisdom’ through non-differentiation” (Shi and Lou 2014, p. 179). This means that both mental wisdom and worldly phenomena are fundamentally empty, unborn and undying, without origin or destination. Sengzhao employs the universality of consciousness to unify differences, suggesting that the distinctions of birth and death are merely transformations within the mind, not the intrinsic properties of things themselves, or “birth and death are transformations of the mind” (Zhang 2010, p. 100). Similarly, distinctions of existence and non-existence, as well as words and symbols, are fundamentally illusions generated by the mind, or “existence and non-existence are reflections of the mind; words and images are merely echoes of mental grasping” (Zhang 2010, p. 151). In this sense, all phenomena are projections of the mind, and even language itself arises as a product of mental constructs.

Sengzhao inherits the Madhyamaka teachings of Mahayana Buddhism and reinterprets the relationship between mind and object with a distinctly Chinese philosophical approach. As Feng Qi remarked, Sengzhao “eliminates opposing ‘views’ to inspire individuals toward grasping the unconditional absolute quietude, using relativistic dialectics to achieve metaphysical absoluteness” (Feng 2016, p. 217). This “metaphysical absoluteness” implies transcending the relativistic differences of reality and attaining unity and represents the pursuit of a complete comprehension of the world that transcends all distinctions. This pursuit reflects the essence of mind-consciousness and overcoming of binary oppositions at the heart of Sengzhao’s Chinese Buddhist thought.

3. The Mind Embracing All Things

Like all philosophical systems that persistently seek universality, Buddhist philosophy pursues “truth” by striving to uncover the ultimate nature and origin of all phenomena. This approach necessitates forming a universal understanding of the world. As previously mentioned, the manifestations of the world are highly diverse. How, then, can one grasp them in their entirety through a universal perspective? During the Sui and Tang dynasties, Chinese Buddhism advanced many interpretive developments that addressed this fundamental problem, resulting in the emergence of Buddhist concepts infused with unique characteristics of Chinese philosophy. The issue of “the one and the many”, for example, is a classic topic in philosophical thought. When faced with a diverse world, how can one achieve a unified perspective? This metaphysical endeavor to construct a cohesive worldview is an inevitable tendency of philosophical reasoning. Some schools within Chinese Buddhism employ the concept of the unifying “mind” to reconcile the differences among all phenomena, asserting that the world is “created by the one mind” and thus all things are unified by that “one mind”.

The Tiantai school proposes the doctrine of “three thousand worlds in a single thought” (yinian sanqian 一念三千), emphasizing that the “one mind” contains the entirety of the universe. It asserts that “in one thought, all is fully present” (Shi and Lou 2014, p. 20). While the phenomenal world appears to exhibit diversity, at its root, it can be unified through the perspective of the one mind such that “pointing to one as many makes the many not many; pointing to the many as one makes the one not less. Thus, this mind is called and realm of the inconceivable” (Shi and Lou 2014, p. 20). The multiplicity of the three thousand characteristics can all be comprehended through the one mind, giving the “mind” significance in regard to its comprehensive nature. Zhiyi, the founder of the Tiantai school, explained this:

One mind encompasses the ten realms of existence. Each realm contains another ten realms, making a hundred realms in total. Each of these hundred realms includes thirty types of worlds, resulting in three thousand worlds within a single thought. Without the mind, they would not exist, but with even the smallest thought, all three thousand are present.

(Shi and Lou 2014, p. 36)

Thus, the diversity of tens, hundreds, and thousands is subsumed within the unity of the “one mind”. As Zhiyi stated, “the mind alone encompasses all dharmas, and all dharmas are the mind” (Shi and Lou 2014, p. 36). The “three thousand worlds” manifest within the one mind, either implicitly or explicitly. The one mind becomes the locus of unity within the vast array of phenomena, endowing it with a unifying universality, or “in essence, this mind contains all the merits of bodhisattvas and enables supreme enlightenment across the three periods of time” (Shi and Lou 2014, p. 22). Consequently, the practice of cultivation centers on “observing the mind”, about which Zhiyi wrote, “whether one’s mental afflictions are alike or different, they are transformed and resolved through this observing the mind” (Shi and Lou 2014, p. 57).

Zhiyi emphasized the practices of observing the mind and attaining peace within it such that “all-encompassing wisdom arises from observation. It is adorned with infinite merits, skillful means, metaphors, and extensive praise of observation, which further generates merit. This is called observing and attaining peace according to expediency”. The mind is treated as the key to understanding the world and comprehending life. Human existence is fraught with suffering and hardship, and according to Zhiyi, the solution to suffering lies precisely in these practices of observing and attaining peace within the mind. Indeed, these practices associated with liberation and wisdom are further extended to the problem of the one and the many, or as Zhiyi stated, “If one mind is liberated, then all realms are liberated” (Shi and Lou 2014, p. 57). The “one” here is employed to govern the “many”, aiming to achieve a unified and consistent grasp of the world. This provides practitioners with a skillful means for spiritual cultivation and reflects Chinese Buddhism’s enduring pursuit for universality.

The Huayan school advocates the concept of “dependent origination of the Dharma realm”, asserting that the complete and perfect Buddha realm, encompassing both principles (li 理) and phenomena (shi 事), constitutes a grand dependent origination. Within the cosmos lies a universal truth, allowing all dharmas to integrate within a single thought of the mind. They mutually reveal their wondrous functions in natural interplay, forming an infinite and interconnected display of illusory projections that make up the world. Zongmi 宗密 (780–841 CE), quoting Dushun 杜順, remarked that “in every single phenomenon, universal principle is entirely present—it is not partially so. Why? Because the true principle is indivisible. Therefore, even the smallest speck of dust contains boundless truth, completely perfect and sufficient” (Shi and Lou 2014, p. 405). From this perspective, “principle” is the highest universal category of existence in the cosmos. All things embody the universal and unified truth, and the world inherently possesses universal consistency. Each individual phenomenon fully manifests the entire universal truth and is thus complete and self-sufficient in itself.

For Fazang 法藏 and Zongmi, the unifying universality of the world is concretely reflected in “a single thought of the mind”, or as Fazang stated, “all dharmas are merely manifestations of the mind, with no independent essence. Therefore, large or small, they turn in accordance with the mind, entering a state of non-obstruction” (Shi and Lou 2014, p. 92). “All dharmas” are manifestations of the mind’s awareness, and because the mind permeates all phenomena, they can interpenetrate seamlessly. Fazang explained further that “all things and events arise from the mind; when the mind is unhindered, phenomena harmonize accordingly. Thus, in a single thought, one can perceive the entirety of phenomena in the three realms (past, present, and future)” (Shi and Lou 2014, p. 116). According to Fazang, the manifestation of the entire world is contained within a single thought, relying on the individual’s mental and perceptual experience, and “all dharmas within the three realms are created by the one mind” (Shi and Lou 2014, p. 105). This premise also leads to the conclusion that distinctions among phenomena arise from illusions caused by the mind’s delusions, and thus “all distinctions originate solely from one’s own mind” (Shi and Lou 2014, p. 105). Because all things are unified in the one thought of the mind, their diversity and relativity are nullified, and “the one and the many mutually include each other, eliminating distinctions of before and after; great functions freely manifest, unhindered by obstacles” (Shi and Lou 2014, p. 104). In this way, the concept of “one mind” is used by Fazang to encompass the “myriad differences”, and thus the bewildering diversity of the world can achieve universal consistency through subjective realization.

In the broader Huayan tradition, Zongmi emphasized grasping the fundamental nature of the world, evident in quotes such as “all things teem with life, each possessing its root; all things flourish and thrive, each returning to its origin” (Shi and Lou 2014, p. 386). This notion of root and origin resembles the Daoist tradition of thought, echoing Laozi’s statement that “the ten-thousand things arise together; I observe their return. All things are numerous, yet each returns to its root”. This reflects the linguistic expression of the ultimate universal principle within Chinese philosophy that within all things lies a universally consistent existence. Following this approach of seeking roots and origins, Zongmi elaborated further:

The one true Dharma realm encompasses all things; it is the one mind. This mind, embracing all phenomena, manifests in the four Dharma realms: (1) the realm of phenomena; (2) the realm of principle; (3) the non-obstruction of principle and phenomena; and (4) the non-obstruction of phenomena.

(Shi and Lou 2014, pp. 394–95)

The “true mind” (zhenxin 真心) comprehends all things, serving as the fundamental basis for the existence and manifestation of all phenomena. It transcends the boundaries between persons and things, as well as self and other, merging with the external world as one. Through the framework of the four Dharma realms, the vast universe unfolds seamlessly and without obstruction.

The Huayan school unifies all phenomena under the concept of the human mind, emphasizing that the mind can serve as the integrator of all things and the mind in essence becomes the gateway to the universal consistency of the world. Similarly, the Consciousness-Only (Yogācāra) school emphasizes “all dharmas are only mind” (wanfa weishi 萬法唯識). Although its distinction between the “eight consciousnesses” contributes an analytic character, the school tends toward validating the highest wisdom of realization using the comprehensive nature of mind-consciousness. Kuiji 窥基 unequivocally declared that “the three realms exist only as mind, for there are no dharmas apart from the one mind” (Shi and Lou 2014, p. 73). Because external objects cannot exist independently of the mind, human mind-consciousness becomes the essential key to understanding the world, and thus “no independent objects exist apart from consciousness; hence, it is called ‘only mind’ (weixin 唯心)” (Shi and Lou 2014, p. 75). Kuiji proposed that there is no independent realm beyond the mind, and all phenomena arise from the mind and are inseparable from consciousness. The Consciousness-Only school thus emphasizes that the phenomena of the world are all manifestations of the transformations of “mind-consciousness”. The universe in its entirety appears as reflections shaped by fluctuations in consciousness, demonstrating the function of mind-consciousness. Although “mind-consciousness” can be perceived by humans to various degrees, it has no concrete or describable form, embodying both reality and emptiness. It unifies the manifold, thus carrying comprehensive significance.

Generally, mind-consciousness refers to the human capacity to perceive and cognize the world. In Buddhist philosophy, it often denotes the “essence of the mind with cognitive or spiritual functions” (Yao 2021, p. 22). While it has no concrete form, it can nonetheless be perceived. This aligns with Buddhism’s doctrine that the essence of the world is fundamentally empty and simultaneously represents the process through which humans apprehend the world. Mind-consciousness thus carries an element of conceptual reality, making it a frequently invoked concept in Buddhist thought. Amongst some of the representative concepts of Chinese Buddhism, there is a tendency to use mind-consciousness to unify the myriad distinctions of existence. This perspective regards the diversity of the world as an illusory manifestation of mind-consciousness and establishes mind-consciousness as the most essential and even universal presupposition. Through this, supreme wisdom for understanding the world can be attained by mastering one’s own mind-consciousness to grasp the nature of the world and by conquering one’s mental afflictions to achieve transcendence and liberation from worldly concerns. Regarding this element of Chinese Buddhism, Mou Zongsan remarked that “it is only by establishing a transcendent essence of the mind that one can genuinely speak of the theory of perfect and sudden enlightenment. Such a theory must be built upon an objective and rigorously structured possibility—a transcendent and formal possibility” (Mou 2003, p. 266). Chinese Buddhism’s establishment, elaboration, and theorization of mind-consciousness aims to encompass all phenomena of the world through human cognition. By treating conceptual reality as the basis for reconfiguring the world, this approach reflects a way of thinking which is both integrated and universal. Using the unity of mind-consciousness to dissolve the diversity of all phenomena underscores the unified consistency of the world, thereby enabling it to be comprehended through human conceptual understanding. This perspective returns the complex and varied objective world to the realm of human subjective awareness. All landscapes, mountains, rivers, people, and emotions—joy, anger, sorrow, love, aversion, and desire—and all acts of seeing, hearing, speaking, and moving are inseparable from “true nature”. This “true nature” arises from mind-consciousness itself, which is the source of ultimate knowledge. People should each use their own mind-consciousness to achieve a penetrating understanding of the world. By relying on this mind-consciousness, one can govern the “many” with the “one”, thereby finding comprehensive consistency within the diversity of the world. As Cheng Yi observed, “the teachings of the Buddha aim for comprehensive inclusion, which can be summarized in a single phrase: all principles converge into one principle” (Wang 1981, p. 195).

4. The Equality of All Sentient Beings

As a result of all things being manifestations of mind-consciousness, all beings and phenomena can be understood as interconnected and unified. From this perspective, they can be regarded with a universal view, establishing a metaphysical foundation for the equality of all sentient beings within a shared life community. According to Buddhism, all sentient beings possess the “Tathāgatagarbha mind” (rulai zangxin 如来藏心), which serves as the metaphysical basis for their equality. This concept asserts that the Tathāgatagarbha mind is present within all beings, meaning that each being inherently possesses a pure, intrinsic mind-consciousness. When impurities are removed and enlightenment is attained, the Buddha-nature within each being becomes clear and manifest, transforming the latent potential of equality into an active reality. All beings, universally endowed with Buddha-nature, can thus be viewed equally, sharing a common destiny within a barrier-free cosmic existence.

Regarding this notion of universal equality, the modern Buddhist thinker Ouyang Jingwu 歐陽竟無 provided the following imagery:

Imagine a room filled with many lit lamps. Each lamp’s light does not obstruct the others. Rather, each light fills the room equally. The transformations of sentient beings are similar; when karmic forces are aligned, their manifestations are non-obstructive. Like overlapping lights, they resemble one another without interference.

(Ma 2009, p. 10)

This view implies that all sentient beings coexist harmoniously within the cosmic community. They share an innate sense of compassion, and mutual obstruction or conflict is not inevitable. In the history of Chinese thought, Sinicized Buddhist ideas place particular emphasis on the equality of Buddha-nature in all beings. By highlighting the shared destiny of all lives, Buddhism encourages a universal realization that offers a comprehensive understanding of all life within the cosmic community. This concept not only has ethical value but also inspires the pursuit of harmonious coexistence within humanity.

Buddhism advocates for unifying the diversity of all things under a universally consistent principle. Based on this worldview, Zhu Daosheng 竺道生, a Chinese Buddhist thinker between the Jin and Song periods, proposed that “although the myriad dharmas differ, they are fundamentally unified” and that “all sentient beings, without exception, are Buddhas and all can attain nirvana” (Shi and Lou 2014, p. 204). Because the essence of the world is consistent, the potential for beings to attain Buddhahood does not depend on differences in social status or life circumstances within the mundane world. In essence, all life possesses Buddha-nature, and thus all beings are equal and capable of achieving Buddhahood—even those who have severed their roots of virtue, known as an icchantika (yichanti ren 一阐提人)—and thus, Dao Sheng famously stated, “all sentient beings shall ultimately become Buddhas” (Shi and Lou 2014, p. 203), In the context of some schools of Buddhist thought, Buddha-nature is regarded as the essential characteristic of all beings. Since Buddha-nature pervades all sentient beings, they should be viewed as fundamentally equal, with Zhanran 湛然, a Tiantai scholar, even going as far as to say, “each single speck of dust embodies the Buddha-nature of all sentient beings” (Shi and Lou 2014, p. 235). From the perspective of whether things possess Buddha-nature, Zhanran asserted that even the tiniest particle of dust and the most sentient of beings can be seen equally, with there being no fundamental distinction in their embodiment of Buddha-nature. Both sentient and non-sentient entities share Buddha-nature without differentiation, thereby establishing a foundation for universal equality and unimpeded coexistence.

Chan—or Zen—Buddhism is often regarded as the pinnacle of Chinese Buddhist thought. Within the philosophy of Chan Buddhism, all sentient beings possess Buddha-nature. However, due to certain delusions that obscure the human mind, people fail to realize their “true nature” and thus do not grasp the comprehensive unity of all sentient beings in the world. Once one achieves enlightenment—awakening the mind and seeing their true nature—one can recognize the shared essence of all beings and the unity of the world. In addressing the differences in people’s everyday lives, Huineng 慧能 wrote, “though people may live in the north or south, Buddha-nature has no north or south” (Guo 2012, p. 9). While individuals differ in their worldly conditions, all share the universally consistent Buddha-nature. This universality enables people to transcend the distinctions of the world and attain a spiritual universal unity. Indeed, Chan Buddhism holds that the Dharma is universally present within the mundane, and “the Dharma originates in the worldly realm; it is both within and beyond this world. Do not seek it outside the world” (Guo 2012, p. 87). The Dharma does not depart from the worldly realm but instead resides concretely within the human mind, and thus “my own mind holds Buddha; this Buddha is the true Buddha. Without Buddha-nature in my own mind, where else could I find Buddha?” (Guo 2012, p. 129) When individuals ultimately do recognize their own minds and perceive their true nature, they achieve sudden enlightenment. This liberates them from the delusion of distinctions, allowing them to view the world with a non-discriminating mind.

In this worldly existence, individuals may differ, but in the realization of Buddha-nature, there are no distinctions. This provides a method for bridging the gap between individuals and the world. Through awakening to their Buddha-nature, one no longer clings to the distinctions among the myriad phenomena but instead perceives the world from a universally unified perspective. Chan Buddhism observes the world through the experience of the “realm of emptiness” (kongjing 空境). Within this emptiness, all dharmas achieve universal equality and unity, or as the Platform Sutra (Tanjing 壇經), recording the sayings of the sixth patriarch of Chan Buddhism Huineng 惠能 described:

Emptiness contains the sun, moon, and stars, the great earth, rivers, and mountains, streams and brooks, all plants, both good and evil people, good and evil dharmas, heaven and hell. All exist within emptiness, and human nature, too, is inherently empty.

(Guo 2012, p. 59)

The vast variety of natural objects, the distinctions between good and evil in human behavior, conflicts between individuals, the vast wilderness, and the mundane chaos of human affairs are all dissolved into unity through the principle of emptiness. This provides a universal understanding of the world. From this perspective, even the broadest cosmic community should be regarded as a unified whole without divisions. If one can recognize this unity of all phenomena, they can achieve a state in which “there is no distinction between inner and outer and one moves freely without obstruction. Attachment is removed, and one achieves unhindered insight” (Guo 2012, p. 69). By realizing their true nature, one attains Buddhahood and verifies prajñā wisdom.

As is well known, the most prominent aim of Buddhist thought is not to alter the inherent differences in the world itself but to transform the mind’s understanding of the world. The fact that concrete differences exist within the world is not an issue that Chinese Buddhism seeks to or is able to resolve. Instead, Chinese Buddhist philosophy aspires to view the world with an attitude of equanimity, thereby eliminating mental and spiritual attachment to these differences and alleviating mental suffering. Schools of Chinese Buddhism that emphasize the concept of “the equality of all sentient beings” (zhongsheng pingdeng 眾生平等) adopt a similar perspective. Here, “equality” does not refer to factual equality in political, economic, or other material dimensions but is the sort of equality that provides a philosophical foundation for achieving equality in these other areas. The rationale is that if people can recognize the intrinsic equality of all beings, then they will adopt an attitude of equality and tolerance toward others and the world. This perspective transcends distinctions of race, class, ethnicity, nation, and even those of culture, helping to eliminate division and hostility within people’s very minds. This encourages the cessation of mutual oppression and conflict, thereby laying a psychological foundation for achieving practical equality.

The obsession with the differences found within the world have led people to seek control over other living beings and even the environment in various ways. This has triggered tensions and conflicts between individuals and others, as well as between humanity and the natural world, bringing endless suffering. Buddhism attempts to change people’s understanding of these differences by emphasizing the universality of Buddha-nature. Through this universal principle, it constructs a vision of fundamental unity, healing the fractured world and liberating all suffering sentient beings from opposition and conflict. Chinese Buddhism advocates the concept of “equality of the ordinary and the sagely” (pingdeng fansheng 平等凡聖), and some schools hold that “all sentient beings inherently possess Buddha-nature”. Based on this, the idea of the equality of all beings is emphasized in the discourse of certain traditions of Chinese Buddhism. Within these traditions, Buddha-nature is understood as being the most comprehensively consistent principles. On one hand, this provides people with the assurance that they can attain Buddhahood, and on the other hand, it establishes a foundation for the idea of “the equality of all sentient beings”. In the ideals of Chinese Buddhism, the differences and conflicts present in the world do not have inherent necessity. People need not cling to the divisions they perceive on the surface; instead, they should comprehend the world from the higher perspective of comprehensive unity. Through this understanding, one can attain the wisdom of nirvana. The world presents itself through diversity, but people must adopt a unified perspective in approaching these differences. This does not mean dispelling them, nor does it mean amplifying or absolutizing them. Rather, it calls for approaching differences with greater inclusivity. Such a perspective fosters peace and mutual understanding.

Chinese Buddhism approaches sentient beings with a perspective of comprehensive equality. This perspective encompasses not only relations among human beings but also those between humanity and all living things, as well as among all entities in the universe. All are considered to possess equal Buddha-nature. This suggests that the world itself is not inherently divided. Although phenomena appear diverse on the surface, their essence is fundamentally unified. Because of this intrinsic equality and unity, the divisions within the world are not inevitable. Ultimately, the world will progress toward universal consistency among all beings and the collective liberation of all sentient beings. In this way, the Buddha’s great compassion is fully manifested.

5. Conclusions

Human perception of the world is limited, yet the enlightened mind-consciousness possesses infinite potential. Broadly speaking, some Chinese Buddhist schools use the subjective mind-consciousness as a central axis to reveal the world’s myriad phenomena, demonstrating a comprehensive mode of thought that seeks to integrate diversity through unity or unify the many within the one. Whether through concepts such as “the emptiness of all dharmas”, “the mind embracing all things”, or “the equality of all sentient beings”, their essence lies in understanding the comprehensive consistency of the world through human cognition and lived experiences. As Yongjia Xuanjue 永嘉玄覺 of the Tang dynasty expressed, “one nature pervades all natures, one dharma encompasses all dharmas, one moon reflects in all waters, and all reflections unite in one moon” (Shi and Lou 2014, p. 145). This somewhat ambiguous and vague statement reflects the tendency of Chinese Buddhist thought toward breaking through the boundaries of existence and non-existence, the self and things, and the limits of individual ego. It advocates for the interdependence of essence and phenomena, the eternal within the instant, the myriad phenomena stemming from the mind, and the equality of Buddha-nature, transcending all finite, worldly constraints in the pursuit of universal unity. This approach provides an enduring foundation for personal tranquility and ultimate liberation.

This philosophy lays the cognitive groundwork for overcoming the “discriminating mind”, which is the root of separatism and isolationism in reality. Eliminating this discriminating mind is essential for establishing a broad sense of human community. Buddhist thought represents a doctrine of liberation that seeks to serve all humanity, reflecting an awareness of the universal destiny shared by all people. Although Chinese Buddhism still fundamentally grounds its liberation-based wisdom in the pursuit of emptiness and quietude, its focus on mind-consciousness as a unifying force exemplifies the distinctively Chinese philosophical trait of grasping the totality of the world through the mind’s intuitive understanding. The pursuit of universality in Chinese Buddhist thought—expressed as a stance that engages with the world yet transcends it—embodies Buddhism’s profound concern for the shared fate of humanity.