Next Article in Journal
Plant Essential Oil with Biological Activity
Next Article in Special Issue
Phylodynamics and Coat Protein Analysis of Babaco Mosaic Virus in Ecuador
Previous Article in Journal
Calypogeia (Calypogeiaceae, Marchantiophyta) in Pacific Asia: Updates from Molecular Revision with Particular Attention to the Genus in North Indochina
Previous Article in Special Issue
Identification of Causal Agent Inciting Powdery Mildew on Common Bean and Screening of Resistance Cultivars
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Plants
Volume 11
Issue 7
10.3390/plants11070984
plants-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Molecular and Pathogenic Characterization of Cylindrocarpon-like Anamorphs Causing Root and Basal Rot of Almonds

by
Nieves Capote
*,
María Ángeles Del Río
,
Juan Francisco Herencia
and
Francisco Teodoro Arroyo
Andalusian Institute of Agricultural and Fisheries Research and Training (IFAPA) Centro Las Torres, 41200 Seville, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Plants 2022, 11(7), 984; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11070984
Submission received: 9 February 2022 / Revised: 3 March 2022 / Accepted: 2 April 2022 / Published: 4 April 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New and Re-emerging Plant Diseases and Pathogens)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Three almond nurseries were prospected in the South of Spain (Sevilla) to evaluate the sanitary status of the nursery plant material. Samples consisted of main roots, secondary roots and six-month-old basal stems ‘GxN-15’, ‘Nemaguard’, ‘Cadaman’, ‘Rootpac-40’ and ‘Rootpac-20’ rootstocks planted in the soil, and twigs of mother plants from ‘Lauranne’, ‘Guara’, ‘Marcona’, ‘Marta’ and ‘Ferragnes’ almond cultivars. Endophytic and potential pathogenic fungi were identified in mother plants and 70 Cylindrocarpon-like anamorph isolates were detected in the root system and basal stems of analyzed rootstocks. Based on partial sequencing of the his3 gene and multilocus phylogenetic analysis of the concatenated ITS, tub2, his3 and tef1-α partial sequences, seven Cylindrocarpon-like anamorph species were identified as Dactylonectria torresensis, D. novozelandica, D. macrodidyma, Ilyonectria liriodendri, Neonectria sp. 1, N. quercicola and Cylindrocladiella variabilis. Pathogenicity was assessed on young healthy detached twigs of ‘Guara’ almond cultivar and one-year-old ‘Lauranne’ potted almonds grafted onto ‘GxN-15’ rootstocks. Among the seven Cylindrocarpon-like anamorph species, I. liriodendri, Neonectria sp. 1 and N. quercicola were the most aggressive. Inoculated detached shoots developed necrotic lesions 15 days after inoculation. Inoculated trees showed sectorized necrosis in the main and secondary roots and the basal stem of the rootstock 5 months after inoculation. The most aggressive species were able to cause necrosis also in the grafted cultivar, and I. liriodendri, and N. quercicola also reduced the root biomass. This is the first report of Cylindrocarpon-like anamorph species causing root and basal rot of almonds.

1. Introduction

Almond, Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb, is one of the most important nut crops, cultivated mainly in Mediterranean countries, California (USA), South Africa and Australasia. Spain is the second largest producer of almonds after California, displaying 718,540 ha of cultivation and a production of 421,610 t [1]. Andalusia, Southern Spain, contains about 28% of the almond cultivation of Spain, 200 thousand ha in 2019, most of them under rainfed conditions and with a production of around 110 thousand tons [1]. Almond cultivation and consumption have undergone a great boost in recent years, due to the profitability of the crop and the nutritional, functional and healthy properties of almond seeds [2]. In Spain, the traditional rainfed crop is being transformed into a highly technical crop, with the implementation of fertirrigation, mechanized management and the use of new varieties [3,4]. This new scenario has caused a significant increase in the production yields, but also the emergence and re-emergence of new fungal diseases [5,6]. Some of them are transmitted through asymptomatic nursery plant material [7].
Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs are worldwide distributed soil-borne fungi considered saprophytic or weak pathogens [8], although they can cause cankers, root rot and decay of many herbaceous and woody plants with high economic importance, including grapevine [9,10,11], olive [12], loquat [13], kiwifruit [14], apple [15,16], peach [17,18], avocado [19], strawberry and raspberry [20], and forest trees [21,22]. Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs can infect plant roots and stems via wounds or natural openings. Soil is an important source of inoculum for Cylindrocarpon pathogens [23] since most species can produce conidia able to spread in soil water and resistance structures, named chlamydospores, that allow them to survive in the soil for long periods [24]. In addition, infected nursery plant material is another important source of inoculum, as these species could be isolated from rootstock mother plants, rooted rootstocks, grafting material and young plants from nurseries [20,22,25,26,27,28,29].
The genus Cylindrocarpon (Sordariomycetes, Hypocreales, Nectriaceae) was first described by Wollenweber in 1913 as the asexual form of the sexual genus Neonectria [30]. Its taxonomy, based on morphological and phylogenetic analyses, has suffered numerous changes over time [8,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39]. Currently, Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs are considered a group that includes species of the genera Campylocarpon, Cylindrocladiella, Cylindrodendrum, Dactylonectria, Ilyonectria, Neonectria, Pleiocarpon and Thelonectria. Although some of these species have been associated with woody crops diseases, there is a lack of information on the pathogenicity of Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs on almonds. To date, Neonectria ramulariae (anamorph: Cylindrocarpon obtusiusculum) has been associated with canker disease in cold-storage fruit and nut tree seedlings in California [40], and D. macrodidyma has been associated with almond trees in California with no pathogenic assessment [38,41]. In other nut crops, Cylindrocarpon destructans (renamed as Ilyonectria destructans) has been reported as a pathogen in English walnut in Italy [42] and D. macrodidyma, D. novozelandica, D. torresensis, N. californica and Thelonectria aurea has been associated to root rot symptoms in pistachio trees [38] but their pathogenicity has not been confirmed. Thus, the objectives of this study were (i) to conduct surveys in almond nurseries to evaluate the sanitary status of the nursery plant material, and (ii) to molecularly identify and pathogenically characterize the Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs associated with root and basal rot of almond nursery rootstocks.

2. Results

2.1. Fungal Isolation

Endophytic and potentially pathogenic fungi were identified in nursery mother plants of the cultivars ‘Lauranne’, ‘Guara’, ‘Marcona’, ‘Marta’ and ‘Ferragnes’, mainly belonging to genera Alternaria, Arthrinium, Aureobasidium, Chaetomium, Epicoccum, Nigrospora, Peniophora, Phoma and Spegazzinia. In the analyzed rootstocks, a total of 70 Cylindrocarpon-like anamorph isolates were obtained. The incidence of Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs in the three analyzed nurseries was 0.1%, 4% and 10%, respectively. ‘GxN-15’ rootstock presented the highest percentage of isolates of Cylindrocarpon-like species (60%), followed by ‘Rootpac-40’ (21%), ‘Rootpac-R’ (10%), and ‘Nemaguard’ (6%) rootstocks. No Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs were detected in ‘Cadaman’ rootstock. Cylindrocarpon-like species were more frequently isolated from the main root (61%), and then from the secondary roots (36%) and the basal trunk (3%) (Table 1).

2.2. Species Identification

Dactylonectria torresensis, D. macrodidyma, D. novozelandica, Ilyonectria liriodendri and Cylindrocladiella variabilis species were identified based on the partial sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the his3 gene. The his3 tree allowed the separation of D. torresensis, D. macrodidyma, D. novozelandica and I. liriodendri species with high bootstrap values (Figure 1). An independent phylogenetic analysis of his3 partial sequence identified AL139 isolate as Cylindrocladiella variabilis with 98% similarity to Cyl. variabilis CBS 375.93 isolate (Acc. No. JN09888) and a bootstrap value of 78% (Figure S1). Neonectria sp. 1 and N. quercicola species were identified by a multilocus phylogenetic analysis using the concatenated partial sequences of ITS, tub2, his3 and tef1-α. In the ML multilocus tree, two isolates (AL77 and AL78) clustered with Neonectria sp. 1 with bootstrap values of 100%, and the isolate AL141 clustered with N. quercicola with a bootstrap value of 96% (Figure 2). Dactylonectria torresensis was the most frequent Cylindrocarpon-like anamorph species detected in the rootstocks of nursery almonds (76.5%), followed by D. novozelandica (14%), I. liriodendri and Neonectria sp. 1 (3%) and D. macrodidyma, N. quercicola and Cylindrocladiella variabilis (1.5%).

2.3. Pathogenicity Tests in Detached Cultivar Twigs

In the pathogenicity test performed on detached green twigs of ‘Guara’ almond cultivar, the non-inoculated control twigs did not develop any symptoms (Figure 3). In contrast, shoots inoculated with Ilyonectria, Neonectria, Dactylonectria, and Cylindrocladiella species resulted in the development of brown necrotic lesions at 15 days after inoculation (dai) in both experiments. The mean lesion lengths significantly differed among the inoculated species (p < 0.05) (Figure 3). Ilyonectria liriodendri, N. quercicola and Neonectria sp. 1 were the most aggressive species in both experiments causing lesions between 3.5 to 4.4 cm, 1.5 to 2.8 cm, and 1.1 to 2.5 cm, respectively. Dactylonectria novozelandica and D. macrodidyma isolates caused medium-length lesions that varied between 0.7 to 1.1 cm and 0.2 and 0.9 cm, respectively. Finally, D. torresensis and C. variabilis were the species that produced the lowest necrotic lesions in the inoculated twigs, not significantly deferring from the non-inoculated control. The re-isolation rates from the lesions varied between 90% and 100%.

2.4. Pathogenicity Test on Young Almond Trees

In the pathogenicity test performed on one-year-old ‘Lauranne’ potted almonds, all Cylindrocarpon-like anamorph species inoculated were able to cause necrotic lesions in the main and secondary roots and in the basal stem of the rootstocks, consisting of necrosis in sectorized areas (Figure 4A–E). The non-inoculated control trees did not develop any symptoms in the root system nor in the aerial part of the tree (Figure 4F). Ilyonectria liriodendri AL79, N. quercicola AL141, and Neonectria sp. 1 AL77 were the most aggressive isolates and were able to produce necrotic lesions also in the grafted cultivar (section b in Figure 4A, Figure 4B and Figure 4C, respectively). The severity of symptoms caused by I. liriodendri AL79, N. quercicola AL141, and Neonectria sp. 1 AL77 significantly differed from the non-inoculated plants (Figure 5). In addition, I. liriodendri and N. quercicola isolates caused a significant reduction in the root biomass of inoculated plants compared with the non-inoculated controls (Figure 6). The inoculated isolates were reisolated mainly from the main root (between 80 and 100% of the inoculated plants), then from the basal stem (0–40%) and then from the secondary roots (0–20%).

3. Discussion

This study demonstrates the presence of Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs in plant material of almond nurseries able to cause root and basal rot. Seven Cylindrocarpon-like anamorph species were identified from the main and secondary roots and the basal stems of nursery rootstocks planted in the soil. The his3 marker has been demonstrated to be essential either singly or in conjunction with ITS, tub2 and tef1-α loci for the accurate identification of most Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs [22,26,27], and allowed the identification of Dactylonectria torresensis, D. novozelandica, D. macrodidyma, Ilyonectria liriodendri, Neonectria sp. 1, N. quercicola and Cylindrocladiella variabilis species. Although Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs are widely distributed and can act as endophytes and latent pathogens [9,43] they have also shown to be the causal agents of rot diseases in woody and herbaceous crops. However, there is scarce knowledge about the relevance and pathogenicity of these groups of fungi in almond crops. Fungal trunk diseases are important in rootstocks because they can be transmitted to the commercial variety, as occurred with black-foot causing pathogens detected in grapevine roots and crowns [26,44] or those causing cankers in other fruit tree species [16,17]. In this work, we have demonstrated that some Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs, such as Ilyonectria liriodendri, Neonectria quercicola and Neonectria sp. 1 are able not only to cause root and basal rot in the rootstock but also to colonize the grafted almond cultivar. The source of inoculum of Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs in almond nurseries should be investigated by the analysis of the nursery soil and plant material for cutting. In grapevine, the presence of Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs associated with black-foot disease has been demonstrated in nursery soil [23] and at different stages of the grapevine nursery propagation system [29], even in asymptomatic nursery plants [26]. Therefore, the phytosanitary status of nursery plant material, the soil in which plantlets are grown, and even the irrigation water, should be thoroughly analyzed, in the frame of nurseries management, to avoid the entrance and subsequent spread of Cylindrocarpon-like anamorph pathogens into almond production fields.
Dactylonectria torresensis was the most abundant Cylindrocarpon-like species found in the prospected almond nurseries, although this species was the less aggressive, causing the smallest lesions in cultivar detached twigs and low symptoms in inoculated potted plants. This species is the most frequent Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs associated with black-foot disease in grapevines in Italy [11], Portugal [45] and Spain [46], although D. novozelandica and D. macrodidyma proved to be the most aggressive in Spanish and Chinese grapevine nurseries, respectively, despite being detected with low frequencies [26,28]. In the same way, the only isolate detected of Cylindrocladiella variabilis caused minor lesions in the cultivar and was not tested in potted plants, despite some Cylindrocladiella species, such as Cyl. parva and Cyl. peruviana, having been associated to black-foot disease of grapevine [23].
However, we must not minimize the importance of the presence of less abundant species in nursery rootstocks, such as I. liriodendri, N. quercicola and Neonectria sp. 1 which are able not only capable of causing root and basal trunk rot, but also of reaching the variety and producing internal symptoms. Although symptoms observed in the grafted variety were slight, the pathogenicity tests in detached twigs confirmed that these species were able to cause extensive lesions in the ‘Guara’ almond variety. The susceptibility to Cylindrocarpon-like species of other almond varieties should be assessed when establishing new almond orchards. Even more, when the almond crop has experienced a boost in its cultivation, which implies the use of new varieties whose agronomic behavior is unknown, including their susceptibility to pathogens.
The accurate identification and pathogenic characterization of Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs in almond nurseries will assist management decisions that could prevent or minimize infections caused by these pathogens in almond nurseries and commercial orchards.

4. Materials and Methods

4.1. Nursery Surveys and Fungal Isolation

Three almond nurseries located in southwestern Spain were prospected in May 2018 and 2019. Nurseries were located in the municipalities of La Rinconada, and Villaverde del Río (Sevilla province, Spain). Rootstocks and cultivar mother plants were independently analyzed for the detection of pathogenic fungi. Analyzed rootstocks were ‘GxN-15’, ‘Nemaguard’, ‘Rootpac-R’, ‘Rootpac-40’, ‘Rootpac-20’ and ‘Cadaman’. Analyzed mother plants were from ‘Lauranne’, ‘Guara’, ‘Marcona’, ‘Marta’ and ‘Ferragnes’ cultivars. Twenty-five plants per rootstock and cultivar were collected in each survey. Four plant pieces showing discolored or necrotic symptoms were analyzed per each rootstock tissue (main roots, secondary roots, and basal shoots), and four fragments from five asymptomatic scions were analyzed per cultivar mother plant. For fungal isolations, plant tissues were washed under tap water, surface disinfected in 1.5% sodium hypochlorite solution for 1 min, rinsed twice in sterile distilled water, and left to air dry in a laminar flow cabinet. Small pieces (0.5 cm) were plated on potato dextrose agar supplemented with 0.5 g/L of streptomycin sulfate (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) (PDAS). The plates were incubated at 25 °C in 12-h photoperiod for 7 to 15 d. Each colony was then transferred to fresh PDA plates for further isolation. Single spore cultures were obtained from all isolates and maintained in 20% (v/v) glycerol at −80 °C in the IFAPA Las Torres fungal collection (Alcalá del Río, Sevilla, Spain).

4.2. Molecular Characterization of Fungal Isolates

For DNA isolation, fungal mycelium was scraped from PDA fungal cultures, and genomic DNA was extracted using the Isolate II Plant DNA Kit (Bioline, Toronto, ON, Canada) following the manufacturer’s instructions. The DNA concentration was determined on an ND-1000 NanoDrop spectrophotometer (Nano-Drop Products, Wilmington, DE, USA). Molecular identification of fungal isolates from cultivar mother plants was performed by sequencing fragments of the internal transcribed spacer 1 and 2 (ITS), including 5.8S of the nuclear ribosomal DNA using the primers ITS1 and ITS4 [47]. To molecularly identify the Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs isolated from rootstocks, partial sequencing of the histone H3 (his3) gene was performed using primers CYLH3F/CYLH3R [48]. Isolates identified in the GenBank database as Cylindrocarpon spp. were additionally sequenced for the ITS region, and partial regions of the translation elongation factor 1-α gene (tef1-α) using primers CylEF-1 (5′-ATGGGTAAGGAVGAVAAGAC-3′; J.Z. Groenewald, unpublished) and CylEF-R2 [48], and β-tubulin (tub2) using primers T1 [49] and Bt2b [50]. PCR amplifications contained 10× PCR Buffer (Intron Biotechnology, Inc., Seongnam, Gyeonggi, Korea), 2 mM MgCl2, 0.25 mM each dNTP, 0.4 µM each primer, 1 U of i-Pfu high fidelity DNA polymerase (Intron Biotechnology, Inc., Seongnam, Gyeonggi, Korea) and 20–100 ng of genomic DNA in a 25 mL final volume. Amplifications were carried out at 95 °C for 3 min followed by 35 cycles of 30 s at 95 °C, 30 s at 55 °C (for ITS) or 60 °C (for his3) or 59 °C (for tef1-α) or 52 °C (for tub2) and 30 s at 72 °C. Amplicon sizes were resolved in 1.5% agarose gels in 0.5 × TAE (Tris-acetate-EDTA) buffer stained with RedSafe nucleic acid staining solution (Intron Biotechnology, Inc., Seongnam, Gyeonggi, Korea) and visualized over an ultraviolet transilluminator. Amplicons were purified using the FavorPrep Gel/PCR purification kit (Favorgen, Ping-Tung, Taiwan) following the manufacturer’s instructions and sequenced in both directions by STAB VIDA DNA Sequencing Service (Caparica, Portugal). The sequences generated were deposited in the GenBank (Table 1) and compared with available sequences by BLAST analysis. One or two isolates were selected from each species for pathogenicity tests.

4.3. Phylogenetic Analyses

The identification of the Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs was performed by partial sequencing of the his3 gene. BLASTn analysis revealed the presence of Dactylonectria, Ilyonectria, Neonectria and Cylindrocladiella spp. A single-locus phylogenetic analysis using his3 partial sequences (617 nt) was performed for Dactylonectria, Ilyonectria and Cylindrocladiella isolates. In addition, a multilocus phylogenetic analysis consisting of concatenated partial sequences of ITS, tub2, his3 and tef1-α was performed to better resolve Neonectria species. Multiple sequence alignments were performed in MEGA7 software [51] using the CLUSTALW algorithm [52] refined with MUSCLE [53] and edited manually. Phylogenetic analyses were conducted using MEGA7 through maximum likelihood (ML) analysis.

4.4. Pathogenicity Tests in Detached Twigs of Almond Cultivar

One-year twigs from the ‘Guara’ almond cultivar were inoculated with ten representative isolates of the Cylindrocarpon-like anamorph species detected in nursery plants. For this, the almond twigs were cut into 12 cm pieces, surface sterilized by spraying to run off with 75% ethanol and left to air dry in a laminar flow cabinet. Two wounds per twig were made with a 5 mm diameter cork borer. Five-mm mycelium agar plugs from PDA active growing colonies were placed with the mycelium attached to the subcortical tissue and sealed with parafilm. Inoculated twigs were individually inserted in glass tubes containing 2 mL of sterile water. Tubes were capped and incubated in a growth chamber at 25 °C in the dark. Eight twigs per isolate were inoculated. Plugs of sterile PDA were used to inoculate shoots used as controls. The experiment was performed twice in 2018 with some variations in the isolates tested. Two weeks after inoculation the twigs were peeled, and the length of the internal lesions was measured. Re-isolation of the inoculated fungal isolates were performed for all inoculated twigs by taking small pieces from the margin of the lesions and placing them onto PDA. Isolations were also performed from asymptomatic twigs. Plates were incubated at 25 °C in the dark for 10 to 15 d, and fungal growths were identified based on cultural and morphological characteristics. The percentage of re-isolation was calculated. The lesion length data were statistically analyzed with Statistix v.9.0 (Analytical Software, Tallahassee, FL, USA). To determine whether the data obtained followed a normal distribution, the Shapiro–Wilk test (W test) was used. The homogeneity of the variance of the dataset was assessed using Levene’s test. One-way ANOVA analysis was performed to evaluate the significant differences in the lesion lengths caused by each fungal species, using the LSD test for the comparisons of the means, at p < 0.05.

4.5. Pathogenicity Tests in Potted Plants

Fungal inoculums were prepared by infecting wheat seeds. For this, seeds were soaked in water for 12 h and air dried. Glass flasks were half filled with the seeds and sterilized at 121 °C for 60 min for three consecutive days. Five-mm mycelium agar plugs from colonies actively growing in PDA for 10–15 d were transferred to the flasks in sterile conditions. Negative controls consisted of wheat seeds with non-colonized PDA plugs. Flasks were incubated at 25 °C in the dark for 1 month and shaken every week to avoid the seeds becoming compacted. Inoculated seeds were mixed with sterile peat substrate at 1%.
Plants consisted of one-year-old almonds cv. Lauranne grafted onto ‘GxN-15’ rootstocks. Five plants per isolate were transplanted to plastic pots (3L) filled with the inoculated substrate or the negative control and maintained in greenhouse conditions for 5 months. Internal wood and root symptoms were evaluated at the end of the assays using a 0–4 scale where 0 = no symptoms; 1 = 1–25% root and basal trunk necrosis, 2 = 26–50% root and basal trunk necrosis, 3 = 51–75% root and basal trunk necrosis, and 4 = >76% root and basal trunk necrosis or necrosis in the grafted variety. In addition, the dry weights of roots were recorded for each plant. Re-isolation of the inoculated fungal isolates was performed by tissue culturing of the symptomatic tissues as described previously. The experiment was performed twice, in 2019 and 2020. Analysis of variance indicated that the data between the two repetitions were similar (p > 0.05). Thus, data from both experiments were combined. ANOVA analysis was performed on symptoms data and root dry weights using the LSD for the comparisons of the means, at p < 0.05. Data were analyzed using Statistix v.9.0.

5. Conclusions

This is the first report of Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs causing root and basal rot of almonds. The accurate identification and pathogenic characterization of Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs in almond nurseries could be essential to aid management decisions that could prevent or minimize infections caused by these pathogens in almond nurseries and production fields. The susceptibility to Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs in different almond cultivars should be investigated in further experiments.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/plants11070984/s1, Figure S1: Molecular Phylogenetic analysis of Cylindrocladiella spp. by Maximum Likelihood method. Table S1: Isolates retrieved from the GenBank used in this study

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, N.C.; methodology, N.C., J.F.H., F.T.A. and M.Á.D.R.; software, N.C.; validation, N.C. and M.Á.D.R.; formal analysis, N.C. and M.Á.D.R.; investigation, N.C. and M.Á.D.R.; resources, N.C.; writing—original draft preparation, N.C.; writing—review and editing, N.C. and F.T.A.; supervision, N.C. and F.T.A.; funding acquisition, N.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was funded by the “Operational Program Smart Growth” from the National Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology (INIA) and European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) 2014–2020 (grant number: RTA2017–00009–C04-03) and by the State Plan for Scientific and Technical Research and Innovation 2017–2020 of the Ministry of Science and Innovation and European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) (grant number: PID2020–115639RR).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

Authors want to thank to M. Carmen Sánchez and Ana Hernández, for her valuable technical assistance, and M. Aguilar for providing two isolates.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

References

  1. MAPA. 2020. Available online: https://www.mapa.gob.es/es/estadistica/temas/estadisticas-agrarias/agricultura/superficies-producciones-anuales-cultivos/ (accessed on 31 January 2022).
  2. Bagchi, D. Global Market Entry Regulations for Nutraceuticals, Functional Foods, Dietary/Food/Health Supplements. Nutraceutical and Functional Food Regulations in the United States and around the World, 2nd ed.; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2017; pp. 41–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Ossama, K.; Alonso, J.M. The Introduction of New Cultivars in Spanish Almond Growing. ed: FAO-CIHEAM. Nucis-Newsletter, Number 15 December 2011. pp. 14–17. Available online: https://citarea.cita-aragon.es/citarea/bitstream/10532/1865/1/2012_107.pdf (accessed on 31 January 2022).
  4. Miarnau, X.; Torguet, L.; Zazurca, L.; Maldonado, L.; Girabet, R.; Batlle, I.; Rovira, M. El futuro del almendro en España:¿será posible producir 4000 kg de grano/ha? Horticultura 2017, 337, 16–26. [Google Scholar]
  5. Ollero-Lara, A.; Agustí-Brisach, C.; Lovera, M.; Roca, L.F.; Arquero, O.; Trapero, A. Field susceptibility of almond cultivars to the four most common aerial fungal diseases in southern Spain. Crop Prot. 2019, 121, 18–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. López-Moral, A.; Raya-Ortega, M.C.; Agustí-Brisach, C.; Roca, L.F.; Lovera, M.; Luque, F.; Arquero, O.; Trapero, A. Morphological, Pathogenic, and Molecular Characterization of Colletotrichum acutatum Isolates Causing Almond Anthracnose in Spain. Plant Dis. 2017, 101, 2034–2045. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  7. Marín-Terrazas, M.; De Ojer, J.L.R.-S.; López-Manzanares, B.; Gramaje, D. First Report of Phaeoacremonium minimum Causing Wood Decay in Nursery Plants of Almond in Spain. Plant Dis. 2016, 100, 1244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Booth, C. The Genus Cylindrocarpon; Serie Mycological Papers no. 104; Kew (Sy.) Commonwealth Mycological Institute: London, UK, 1996; pp. 1–56. [Google Scholar]
  9. Hallenn, F.; Fourie, P.H.; Crous, P.W. A Review of Black Foot Disease of Grapevine. Phytopathol. Mediterr. 2006, 45, S55–S67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Gramaje, D.; Úrbez-Torres, J.R.; Sosnowski, M.R. Managing Grapevine Trunk Diseases With Respect to Etiology and Epidemiology: Current Strategies and Future Prospects. Plant Dis. 2018, 102, 12–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  11. Carlucci, A.; Lops, F.; Mostert, L.; Halleen, F.; Raimondo, M.L. Occurrence fungi causing black foot on young grapevines and nursery rootstock plants in Italy. Phytopathol. Mediterr. 2017, 56, 10–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Nigro, F.; Antelmi, I.; Sion, V.; Parente, P.; Pacifico, A. First Report of Dactylonectria torresensis Causing Foot and Root Rot of Olive Trees. Plant Dis. 2019, 103, 768. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Agustí-Brisach, C.; Cabral, A.; González-Domínguez, E.; Pérez-Sierra, A.; León, M.; Abad-Campos, P.; García-Jiménez, J.; Oliveira, H.; Armengol, J. Characterization of Cylindrodendrum, Dactylonectria and Ilyonectria isolates associated with loquat decline in Spain, with description of Cylindrodendrum alicantinum sp. nov. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 2015, 145, 103–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Erper, I.; Agustí-Brisach, C.; Tunali, B.; Armengol, J. Characterization of root rot disease of kiwifruit in the Black Sea region of Turkey. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 2013, 136, 291–300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Tewoldemedhin, Y.T.; Mazzola, M.; Mostert, L.; McLeod, A. Cylindrocarpon species associated with apple tree roots in South Africa and their quantification using real-time PCR. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 2010, 129, 637–651. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Manici, L.M.; Kelderer, M.; Caputo, F.; Saccà, M.L.; Nicoletti, F.; Topp, A.R.; Mazzola, M. Involvement of Dactylonectria and Ilyonectria spp. in tree decline affecting multi-generation apple orchards. Plant Soil 2018, 425, 217–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Yaseen, T.; Ahmed, Y.; D’Onghia, A.M.; Digiaro, M. First Report of Cylindrocarpon pauciseptatum Associated with Root Rot and Decline of Peach in Southern Italy (Apulia Region). Plant Dis. 2012, 96, 764. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Bhat, R.G.; Schmidt, L.S.; Browne, G.T. Quantification of Cylindrocarpon sp in roots of almond and peach trees from orchards affected by Prunus replant disease. Phytopathology 2011, 101, S15. [Google Scholar]
  19. Parkinson, L.E.; Shivas, R.G.; Dann, E.K. Pathogenicity of Nectriaceous Fungi on Avocado in Australia. Phytopathology 2017, 107, 1479–1485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  20. Weber, R.W.S.; Entrop, A.-P. Dactylonectria torresensis as the Main Component of the Black Root Rot Complex of Strawberries and Raspberries in Northern Germany. Erwerbs-Obstbau 2017, 59, 157–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Agustí-Brisach, C.; Pérez-Sierra, A.; García-Figueres, F.; Montón, C.; Armengol, J. First Report of Damping-Off Caused by Cylindrocarpon pauciseptatum on Pinus radiata in Spain. Plant Dis. 2011, 95, 874. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. Mora-Sala, B.; Cabral, A.; León, M.; Agustí-Brisach, C.; Armengol, J.; Abad-Campos, P. Survey, Identification, and Characterization of Cylindrocarpon-Like Asexual Morphs in Spanish Forest Nurseries. Plant Dis. 2018, 102, 2083–2100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  23. Agustí-Brisach, C.; Mostert, L.; Armengol, J. Detection and quantification of Ilyonectriaspp. associated with black-foot disease of grapevine in nursery soils using multiplex nested PCR and quantitative PCR. Plant Pathol. 2013, 63, 316–322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Petit, E.J.; Barriault, E.; Baumgartner, K.; Wilcox, W.F.; Rolshausen, P.E. Cylindrocarpon Species Associated with Black-Foot of Grapevine in Northeastern United States and Southeastern Canada. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 2011, 62, 177–183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Ramírez-Gil, J.G.; Osorio, J.G.M. Source of inoculum of pathogens, the origin of disorders and diseases management in avocado nurseries. Australas. Plant Pathol. 2021, 50, 457–468. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Berlanas, C.; Ojeda, S.; López-Manzanares, B.; Andrés-Sodupe, M.; Bujanda, R.; Martínez-Diz, M.D.P.; Díaz-Losada, E.; Gramaje, D. Occurrence and Diversity of Black-Foot Disease Fungi in Symptomless Grapevine Nursery Stock in Spain. Plant Dis. 2020, 104, 94–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  27. Aigoun-Mouhous, W.; Elena, G.; Cabral, A.; León, M.; Sabaou, N.; Armengol, J.; Chaouia, C.; Mahamedi, A.E.; Berraf-Tebbal, A. Characterization and pathogenicity of Cylindrocarpon-like asexual morphs associated with black foot disease in Algerian grapevine nurseries, with the description of Pleiocarpon algeriense sp. nov. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 2019, 154, 887–901. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Ye, Q.; Zhang, W.; Jia, J.; Li, X.; Zhou, Y.; Han, C.; Wu, X.; Yan, J. Fungal pathogens associated with black foot of grapevine in China. Phytopathol. Mediterr. 2021, 60, 303–319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Agustí-Brisach, C.; Gramaje, D.; García-Jiménez, J.; Armengol, J. Detection of black-foot disease pathogens in the grapevine nursery propagation process in Spain. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 2013, 137, 103–112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Rossman, A.Y.; Samuels, G.J.; Rogerson, C.T.; Lowen, R. Genera of Bionectriaceae, Hypocreaceae and Nectriaceae (Hypocreales, Ascomycetes). Stud. Mycol. 1999, 42, 1–248. [Google Scholar]
  31. Mantiri, F.R.; Samuels, G.J.; Rahe, J.E.; Honda, B.M. Phylogenetic relationships in Neonectria species having Cylindrocarpon anamorphs inferred from mitochondrial ribosomal DNA sequences. Can. J. Bot. 2001, 79, 334–340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Brayford, D.; Honda, B.M.; Mantiri, F.R.; Samuels, G.J. Neonectria and Cylindrocarpon: The Nectria mammoidea group and species lacking microconidia. Mycologia 2004, 96, 572–597. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Halleen, F.; Schroers, H.J.; Groenewald, J.Z.; Crous, P.W. Novel species of Cylindrocarpon (Neonectria) and Cam-pylocarpon gen. nov associated with black foot disease of grapevines (Vitis spp.). Stud. Mycol. 2004, 50, 431–455. [Google Scholar]
  34. Chaverri, P.; Salgado, C.; Hirooka, Y.; Rossman, A.; Samuels, G. Delimitation of Neonectria and Cylindrocarpon (Nectriaceae, Hypocreales, Ascomycota) and related genera with Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs. Stud. Mycol. 2011, 68, 57–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Cabral, A.; Rego, C.; Nascimento, T.; Oliveira, H.; Groenewald, J.Z.; Crous, P.W. Multi-gene analysis and morphology reveal novel Ilyonectria species associated with black foot disease of grapevines. Fungal Biol. 2012, 116, 62–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Salgado-Salazar, C.; Rossman, A.Y.; Chaverri, P. The genus Thelonectria (Nectriaceae, Hypocreales, Ascomycota) and closely related species with cylindrocarpon-like asexual states. Fungal Divers. 2016, 80, 411–455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Aiello, D.; Polizzi, G.; Crous, P.W.; Lombard, L. Pleiocarpon gen. nov. and a new species of Ilyonectria causing basal rot of Strelitzia reginae in Italy. IMA Fungus 2017, 8, 65–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  38. Lawrence, D.; Nouri, M.; Trouillas, F. Taxonomy and multi-locus phylogeny of cylindrocarpon-like species associated with diseased roots of grapevine and other fruit and nut crops in California. Fungal Syst. Evol. 2019, 4, 59–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  39. Lombard, L.; Van Der Merwe, N.A.; Groenewald, J.Z.; Crous, P.W. Lineages in Nectriaceae: Re-evaluating the generic status of Ilyonectria and allied genera. Phytopathol. Mediterr. 2014, 53, 515–532. [Google Scholar]
  40. Marek, S.M.; Yaghmour, M.A.; Bostock, R.M. Fusarium spp., Cylindrocarpon spp., and Environmental Stress in the Etiology of a Canker Disease of Cold-Stored Fruit and Nut Tree Seedlings in California. Plant Dis. 2013, 97, 259–270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  41. Lawrence, D.P.; Nouri, M.; Trouillas, F.P. Taxonomy and phylogeny of cylindrocarpon-like fungi associated with root rot diseases of perennial fruit and nut crops in California. Phytopathology 2018, 108, 51. [Google Scholar]
  42. Montecchio, L. First Report of Cylindrocarpon destructans on English Walnut in Italy. Plant Dis. 1995, 79, 967. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Agusti-Brisach, C.; Armengol, J. Black-foot disease of grapevine: An update on taxonomy, epidemiology and man-agement strategies. Phytopathol. Mediterr. 2013, 52, 245–261. [Google Scholar]
  44. Özben, S.; Demirci, F.; Değirmenci, K.; Uzunok, S. First Report of Cylindrocarpon macrodidymum Associated with Black Foot Diseases of Grapevine in Turkey. Plant Dis. 2012, 96, 762. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Reis, P.; Cabral, A.; Nascimento, T.; Oliveira, H.; Rego, C. Diversity of Ilyonectria species in a young vineyard affected by black foot disease. Phytopathol. Mediterr. 2013, 52, 335–346. [Google Scholar]
  46. Berlanas, C.; Manzanares, B.L.; Gramaje, D. Estimation of viable propagules of black-foot disease pathogens in grapevine cultivated soils and their relation to production systems and soil properties. Plant Soil 2017, 417, 467–479. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. White, T.J.; Bruns, T.; Lee, S.; Taylor, J. Amplification and Direct Sequencing of Fungal Ribosomal RNA Genes for Phylogenetics. PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1990; pp. 315–322. [Google Scholar]
  48. Crous, P.W.; Groenewald, J.Z.; Risède, J.M.; Simoneau, P.; Hywel-Jones, N.L. Calonectria species and their Cylin-drocladium anamorphs: Species with sphaeropedunculate vesicles. Stud. Mycol. 2004, 50, 415–430. [Google Scholar]
  49. O’Donnell, K.; Cigelnik, E. Two Divergent Intragenomic rDNA ITS2 Types within a Monophyletic Lineage of the FungusFusariumAre Nonorthologous. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 1997, 7, 103–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  50. Glass, N.L.; Donaldson, G.C. Development of primer sets designed for use with the PCR to amplify conserved genes from filamentous ascomycetes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1995, 61, 1323–1330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  51. Kumar, S.; Stecher, G.; Tamura, K. MEGA7: Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis Version 7.0 for Bigger Datasets. Mol. Biol. Evol. 2016, 33, 1870–1874. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  52. Thompson, J.D.; Higgins, D.G.; Gibson, T.J. CLUSTAL W: Improving the sensitivity of progressive multiple sequence alignment through sequence weighting, position-specific gap penalties and weight matrix choice. Nucleic Acids Res. 1994, 22, 4673–4680. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  53. Edgar, R.C. MUSCLE: Multiple sequence alignment with high accuracy and high throughput. Nucleic Acids Res. 2004, 32, 1792–1797. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
Plants 11 00984 g001 550
Figure 1. Phylogenetic Maximum Likelihood tree of Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs isolated from nursery almond rootstocks and retrieved from the Genbank (ex-type cultures in bold), based on the his3 partial sequences (617 positions including gaps) using the general-time-reversible (GTR) model with a rate of variation across sites (+G) and a proportion of invariable sites (+I). Support for internal branches was assessed by 1000 mL bootstrapped pseudoreplicates of data. Nodes with bootstrap support higher than 70% were indicated in the final tree. The tree with the highest log likelihood is shown. The tree was rooted to Thelonectria olida BV-0537 isolate. The scale bar indicates 0.05 expected changes per site. Evolutionary analyses were conducted in MEGA7.
Figure 1. Phylogenetic Maximum Likelihood tree of Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs isolated from nursery almond rootstocks and retrieved from the Genbank (ex-type cultures in bold), based on the his3 partial sequences (617 positions including gaps) using the general-time-reversible (GTR) model with a rate of variation across sites (+G) and a proportion of invariable sites (+I). Support for internal branches was assessed by 1000 mL bootstrapped pseudoreplicates of data. Nodes with bootstrap support higher than 70% were indicated in the final tree. The tree with the highest log likelihood is shown. The tree was rooted to Thelonectria olida BV-0537 isolate. The scale bar indicates 0.05 expected changes per site. Evolutionary analyses were conducted in MEGA7.
Plants 11 00984 g001
Plants 11 00984 g002 550
Figure 2. Phylogenetic Maximum Likelihood tree of Neonectria spp. isolated from nursery almond rootstocks and retrieved from the Genbank (ex-type cultures in bold), based on the concatenated partial sequences of ITS, tub2, his3 and tef1-α (2341 positions) using the Tamura-3 parameter model with a rate of variation across sites (+G). Support for internal branches was assessed by 1000 mL bootstrapped pseudoreplicates of data. Nodes with bootstrap support higher than 70% were indicated in the final tree. The tree with the highest log likelihood is shown. The tree was rooted to Dactylonectria macrodidyma (CBS 112601). The scale bar indicates 0.05 expected changes per site. Evolutionary analyses were conducted in MEGA7.
Figure 2. Phylogenetic Maximum Likelihood tree of Neonectria spp. isolated from nursery almond rootstocks and retrieved from the Genbank (ex-type cultures in bold), based on the concatenated partial sequences of ITS, tub2, his3 and tef1-α (2341 positions) using the Tamura-3 parameter model with a rate of variation across sites (+G). Support for internal branches was assessed by 1000 mL bootstrapped pseudoreplicates of data. Nodes with bootstrap support higher than 70% were indicated in the final tree. The tree with the highest log likelihood is shown. The tree was rooted to Dactylonectria macrodidyma (CBS 112601). The scale bar indicates 0.05 expected changes per site. Evolutionary analyses were conducted in MEGA7.
Plants 11 00984 g002
Plants 11 00984 g003 550
Figure 3. Lesions caused in detached ‘Guara’ almond twigs 15 days after inoculation with Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs: Ilyonectria liriodendri AL79 isolate (a,j); Neonectria quercicola AL141 isolate (b,k); Neonectria sp. 1 AL78 (c,l) and AL77 (d) isolates; Dactylonectria novozelandica AL85 (e,m) and AL84 (f) isolates; D. macrodidyma AL150 isolate (g,n); D. torresensis AL101 (o) and AL29 (p) isolates; Cylindrocladiella variabilis AL139 isolate (h,q), and non-inoculated control (i,r). Two independent experiments are shown with some differences in the isolates tested. Results are the mean of 16 inoculation points (eight twigs and two wounds per twig) per isolate and error bars correspond to the standard error. Data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and different letters indicate significant differences according to the LSD test at p < 0.05.
Figure 3. Lesions caused in detached ‘Guara’ almond twigs 15 days after inoculation with Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs: Ilyonectria liriodendri AL79 isolate (a,j); Neonectria quercicola AL141 isolate (b,k); Neonectria sp. 1 AL78 (c,l) and AL77 (d) isolates; Dactylonectria novozelandica AL85 (e,m) and AL84 (f) isolates; D. macrodidyma AL150 isolate (g,n); D. torresensis AL101 (o) and AL29 (p) isolates; Cylindrocladiella variabilis AL139 isolate (h,q), and non-inoculated control (i,r). Two independent experiments are shown with some differences in the isolates tested. Results are the mean of 16 inoculation points (eight twigs and two wounds per twig) per isolate and error bars correspond to the standard error. Data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and different letters indicate significant differences according to the LSD test at p < 0.05.
Plants 11 00984 g003
Plants 11 00984 g004 550
Figure 4. Representative internal symptoms in ‘Lauranne’ almonds grafted onto ‘GxN-15’ inoculated with (A) Ilyonectria liriodendri AL79 isolate; (B) Neonectria quercicola AL141 isolate; (C) Neonectria sp. 1 AL77 isolate; (D) Dactylonectria novozelandica AL84 isolate; (E) D. torresensis AL29 isolate; (F) non-inoculated control plants. Symptoms in inoculated plants consisted of sectorized necrosis in basal stem (a); slight or no symptoms in the grafted variety (b); central or sectorized necrosis in the main root (c) and secondary roots (d).
Figure 4. Representative internal symptoms in ‘Lauranne’ almonds grafted onto ‘GxN-15’ inoculated with (A) Ilyonectria liriodendri AL79 isolate; (B) Neonectria quercicola AL141 isolate; (C) Neonectria sp. 1 AL77 isolate; (D) Dactylonectria novozelandica AL84 isolate; (E) D. torresensis AL29 isolate; (F) non-inoculated control plants. Symptoms in inoculated plants consisted of sectorized necrosis in basal stem (a); slight or no symptoms in the grafted variety (b); central or sectorized necrosis in the main root (c) and secondary roots (d).
Plants 11 00984 g004
Plants 11 00984 g005 550
Figure 5. Severity of internal symptoms in ‘Lauranne’ almonds grafted onto ‘GxN-15’ inoculated with Ilyonectria liriodendri AL79 isolate; Neonectria quercicola AL141 isolate; Neonectria sp. 1 AL77 isolate; Dactylonectria macrodidyma AL150 isolate; D. novozelandica AL84 isolate; D. torresensis AL29 isolate. Non-inoculated plants were used as controls. Potted plants were maintained in greenhouse conditions and evaluations were performed 5 months after inoculation. Results are the mean of ten plants per isolate and error bars correspond to the standard error. Data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and different letters above bars indicate significant differences according to LSD test at p < 0.05.
Figure 5. Severity of internal symptoms in ‘Lauranne’ almonds grafted onto ‘GxN-15’ inoculated with Ilyonectria liriodendri AL79 isolate; Neonectria quercicola AL141 isolate; Neonectria sp. 1 AL77 isolate; Dactylonectria macrodidyma AL150 isolate; D. novozelandica AL84 isolate; D. torresensis AL29 isolate. Non-inoculated plants were used as controls. Potted plants were maintained in greenhouse conditions and evaluations were performed 5 months after inoculation. Results are the mean of ten plants per isolate and error bars correspond to the standard error. Data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and different letters above bars indicate significant differences according to LSD test at p < 0.05.
Plants 11 00984 g005
Plants 11 00984 g006 550
Figure 6. Weight of the root system of ‘Lauranne’ potted almond trees grafted onto ‘GxN-15’ rootstock inoculated with isolates of Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs. Results are mean of ten trees per isolate and error bars correspond to the standard error. Data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and different letters indicate significant differences according to LSD test at p < 0.05.
Figure 6. Weight of the root system of ‘Lauranne’ potted almond trees grafted onto ‘GxN-15’ rootstock inoculated with isolates of Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs. Results are mean of ten trees per isolate and error bars correspond to the standard error. Data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and different letters indicate significant differences according to LSD test at p < 0.05.
Plants 11 00984 g006
Table
Table 1. Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs used in this study.
Table 1. Cylindrocarpon-like anamorphs used in this study.
SpeciesIsolateRootstockTissue of OriginGenBank Accession No.
ITShis3tub2tef1-α
Dactylonectria torresensisAL3GxN-15main rootOM514923OM483314--
AL29Rootpac-40main rootOM514924OM483315--
AL48GxN-15feeder rootOM514925OM483316--
AL80RP-Rfeeder rootOM514926OM483317--
AL81RP-Rbasal trunkOM514927OM483318--
AL82GxN-15main rootOM514928OM483319--
AL83GxN-15main rootOM514929OM483320--
AL86GxN-15main rootOM514930OM483321--
AL87GxN-15main rootOM514931OM483322--
AL88GxN-15main rootOM514932OM483323--
AL89GxN-15feeder rootOM514933OM483324--
AL90GxN-15feeder rootOM514934OM483325--
AL91GxN-15main rootOM514935OM483326--
AL92GxN-15main rootOM514936OM483327--
AL93GxN-15main rootOM514937OM483328--
AL94GxN-15main rootOM514938OM483329--
AL95GxN-15main rootOM514939OM483330--
AL96GxN-15main rootOM514940OM483331--
AL97GxN-15main rootOM514941OM483332--
AL98GxN-15main rootOM514942OM483333--
AL100GxN-15basal trunkOM514943OM483334--
AL101GxN-15main rootOM514944OM483335--
AL102GxN-15feeder rootOM514945OM483336--
AL105GxN-15main rootOM514946OM483337--
AL106GxN-15main rootOM514947OM483338--
AL107Nemaguardmain rootOM514948OM483339--
AL108GxN-15main rootOM514949OM483340--
AL109RP-Rfeeder root-OM483341--
AL113Rootpac-40feeder root-OM483342--
AL114Rootpac-40feeder root-OM483343--
AL115Rootpac-40feeder root-OM483344--
AL118Rootpac-40feeder root-OM483345--
AL119Rootpac-40feeder root-OM483346--
AL120Rootpac-40feeder root-OM483347--
AL121Rootpac-40feeder root-OM483348--
AL122Rootpac-Rmain root-OM483349--
AL123Rootpac-Rmain root-OM483350--
AL125GxN-15feeder root-OM483351--
AL126GxN-15feeder root-OM483352--
AL129GxN-15main root-OM483353--
AL130GxN-15main root-OM483354--
AL132GxN-15main root-OM483355--
AL137Rootpac-40main root-OM483356--
AL138Rootpac-40feeder root-OM483357--
AL142GxN-15feeder root-OM483358--
AL143GxN-15main root-OM483359--
AL145GxN-15main root-OM483360--
AL146GxN-15main root-OM483361--
AL147GxN-15main root-OM483362--
AL148GxN-15main root-OM483363--
AL151GxN-15feeder root-OM483364--
AL157Rootpac-Rmain root-OM483365--
Cyl1-main rootOM514950OM483366--
Cyl2-main rootOM514951OM483367--
D. novozelandicaAL84GxN-15feeder root-OM483368--
AL85GxN-15main root-OM483369--
AL99GxN-15feeder root-OM483370--
AL111Rootpac-40feeder root-OM483371--
AL112Rootpac-40feeder root-OM483372--
AL116Rootpac-40main root-OM483373--
AL131GxN-15feeder root-OM483374--
AL144GxN-15feeder root-OM483375--
AL152Rootpac-Rmain root-OM483376--
D. macrodidymaAL150GxN-15main root-OM483377--
Ilyonectria liriodendriAL79Nemaguardmain root-OM483378--
AL170GxN-15main root-OM483379--
Neonectria sp. 1AL77Nemaguardmain rootOM514952OM483380OM483386-
AL78Nemaguardmain rootOM514953OM483381OM483387OM483384
Neonectria quercicolaAL141Rootpac-40main rootOM514954OM483382OM483388OM483385
Cylindrocladiella variabilisAL139Rootpac-40feeder root-OM483383--
Sequences retrieved from the GenBank can be consulted in Supplementary Table S1.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Capote, N.; Del Río, M.Á.; Herencia, J.F.; Arroyo, F.T. Molecular and Pathogenic Characterization of Cylindrocarpon-like Anamorphs Causing Root and Basal Rot of Almonds. Plants 2022, 11, 984. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11070984

AMA Style

Capote N, Del Río MÁ, Herencia JF, Arroyo FT. Molecular and Pathogenic Characterization of Cylindrocarpon-like Anamorphs Causing Root and Basal Rot of Almonds. Plants. 2022; 11(7):984. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11070984

Chicago/Turabian Style

Capote, Nieves, María Ángeles Del Río, Juan Francisco Herencia, and Francisco Teodoro Arroyo. 2022. "Molecular and Pathogenic Characterization of Cylindrocarpon-like Anamorphs Causing Root and Basal Rot of Almonds" Plants 11, no. 7: 984. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11070984

APA Style

Capote, N., Del Río, M. Á., Herencia, J. F., & Arroyo, F. T. (2022). Molecular and Pathogenic Characterization of Cylindrocarpon-like Anamorphs Causing Root and Basal Rot of Almonds. Plants, 11(7), 984. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11070984

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop