Adaptation and Coping Strategies of Women to Reduce Food Insecurity in an Era of Climate Change: A Case of Chireya District, Zimbabwe

Abstract

The research investigated how women employ various adaptation and coping mechanisms to alleviate food insecurity resulting from the impacts of climate change. The documentation of the debate on the role of women in adaptation and coping with climate change is relatively limited. Climate change’s effect on food security in semi-arid areas could potentially increase the population of individuals residing in severe poverty. Over the past three decades, Africa’s sub-tropics have experienced irregular rainfall and prolonged droughts, which have negatively affected agriculture and food production. This research utilized a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches within a mixed-method design, guided by the pragmatic paradigm. Based on the results of the study, water harvesting/dam construction and income generating projects (IGPs) were identified as the most effective coping strategies for women. This study recommends implementing awareness campaigns to educate women farmers about the negative effects of climate change and the need for integrated and comprehensive capacity-building frameworks. By understanding the challenges women face in adapting to and coping with climate change, it is hoped that more effective and sustainable solutions can be developed.

1. Introduction

The report (2014) [1] from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) asserts that greenhouse gas emissions are starting to impact the Earth’s climate on a global scale. The IPCC and other researchers (Mikhaylov et al., 2020) [2] expect extreme weather events such as floods, droughts, and tropical storms to become more common and severe in Africa. This trend is consistent with recent climatic changes observed in southern Africa, including Zimbabwe (Phiri et al., 2021; Chanza and Musakwa, 2022; Rangarirai, Marnani and Rahhmat, 2023) [3,4,5].

Climate change poses a significant risk to food security in developing nations, notably in Africa, where the economy relies heavily on agriculture and is highly susceptible to climate-related impacts. As Zimbabwe’s climate has shifted from semi-arid to arid, there is concern about the country’s ability to feed its population (Govere, Nyamangara and Nyakutawa, 2019; Matsa, 2021) [6,7]. Climate-related risks, such as extended dry seasons, have become more common and severe, negatively impacting agricultural livelihoods, food security, and women’s ability to cope with climate change (Govere et al., 2019; Mushore et al., 2021) [6,8].

The impact of climate change hits the poor harder, primarily because they depend more on natural resources and lack the resources to adjust to the shifting climate, as noted by Waha et al. (2013); Sujakhu et al. (2019); and Perkins (2021) [9,10,11]. Women are disproportionately impacted by climate change due to their higher representation among the world’s impoverished populations and their increased dependence on threatened natural resources (Waha et al., 2013; Dewi et al., 2022) [9,12]. The varied effects of climate change on women and men stem from entrenched traditional roles, societal expectations, and unequal power dynamics, all of which constrain their abilities (Hlahla, 2022) [13].

Rural women encounter various obstacles that have adverse effects on their welfare and means of earning a living. These include an unequal distribution of responsibilities for procuring food, water, and fuel for cooking and heating (D’Exelle and Riedl, 2018; Tigabie et al., 2022) [14,15]. Despite playing a significant role in food production, processing, and preparation, women often lack access to and control over agricultural resources (Tigabie et al., 2022) [15]. In addition, they have limited access to maternal health services, resulting in lower rates of institutional delivery compared to urban women, primarily due to financial constraints (Amporfu and Grépin, 2019) [16]. The challenges faced by rural women also include constraints in providing adequate nutrition for their families, leading to poverty, environmental degradation, and a lack of appropriate technology, education, and healthcare (Otu and Anam, 2016; Rahman et al., 2022) [17,18]. Moreover, the prevalence of tobacco use among women has been increasing in low and middle-income countries due to the global spread of modern marketing and production practices (Tiwari et al., 2015; Shukla, 2021) [19,20]. These trends have serious implications for the health and well-being of rural women, who are often disproportionately affected by the adverse effects of tobacco use. Additionally, increasing women’s access to resources such as credit, fertilizers, and improved seeds could significantly increase crop yields from female-controlled plots, leading to improved food security and nutrition, and increased income for rural women (D’Exelle and Riedl, 2018) [14]. This would not only benefit women directly, but also have positive spillover effects on their families and communities. However, it is important to note that such interventions must be designed with the specific needs and constraints of rural women.

Although women are disproportionately affected by the consequences of climate change, the discourse surrounding climate change adaptation has predominantly concentrated on its effects rather than delving into the strategies and resilience mechanisms employed by rural women to cope with these impacts. While its crucial to address climate change adaptation to safeguard those most susceptible, existing endeavors frequently lack cohesion, appear sporadic, and fall short in effectiveness. Therefore, there is a need to identify gender-sensitive adaptation and coping strategies to reduce food insecurity in the context of climate change. In this light, this paper investigates the adaptation and coping strategies employed by women to mitigate the negative effects of climate change in the study area.

Framework for Climate Change, Food Security, and Sustaining Livelihoods

The current research drew upon Fussel and Klein’s (2006) [21] model concerning climate change, food security, and livelihoods (Figure 1). This framework underscores the multifaceted elements essential for understanding a community’s susceptibility to shifting circumstances and its ability to adjust, especially concerning food security. This framework emphasizes the importance of considering the social, economic, and environmental factors that influence a community’s resilience and adaptation strategies. The framework was used to guide the study’s approach to understanding the impacts of climate change on women’s livelihoods and food security, and their responses to these impacts.

As depicted in the diagram, a community’s vulnerability arises from numerous interconnected biophysical and socioeconomic elements that impact the community and influence its methods of adaptation (Figure 1). The framework recognizes that there are multiple dimensions of food security, and that they are linked and interdependent with other aspects of livelihood and the natural resources available to communities. The framework also highlights the important connections and interactions that must be considered when assessing the dynamic nature of a community’s food security. This multi-dimensional perspective allows for a more comprehensive understanding of the complex factors that affect food security. Füssel (2007) and Füssel and Klein (2006) [21,22] contended that an integrated approach to vulnerability analysis aligns well with a definition of vulnerability that incorporates adaptive capacity, sensitivity, and exposure as its primary components. The framework’s “exposure” element is considered external, while “sensitivity” and “adaptive capacity” are considered internal. This internal and external perspective on vulnerability is implicitly assumed in the integrated vulnerability assessment framework. This perspective allows for a more nuanced and comprehensive understanding of vulnerability. However, there is no universally agreed-upon method for integrating biophysical and socioeconomic indicators. This approach relies on a variety of data sources, from socioeconomic data such as race and age distribution, to biophysical data such as the frequency of earthquakes or droughts. These data sources are likely to have different weights, and the process of assigning weight is not straightforward. Despite its limitations, this approach can provide valuable insights for policy decisions. This framework provides a broad overview of the factors and relationships that affect and constrain the nature and dynamics of a community’s food security. This demonstrates that the resources crucial for a community’s food security are at risk due to climate change, influenced by both biophysical (pertaining to the physical, biological, and ecological aspects) and socioeconomic (encompassing social, economic, political, and institutional factors) factors.

However, the level of vulnerability differs depending on the types of assets the community possesses. This approach provides a comprehensive perspective on the complex and multifaceted nature of food security. The vulnerability to climate change of people in a village depends on the assets they possess and how they are affected by biophysical and socioeconomic factors. This approach was used to analyze how women’s adaptation and coping strategies can reduce food insecurity in a time of climate change. The analysis findings indicate that women encounter different levels of vulnerability based on their access to resources and their capacity to adapt to evolving circumstances, contingent upon their diverse assets. This suggests that a tailored approach to addressing food insecurity is needed, taking into account the unique circumstances of different communities.

The research topic “Adaptation and coping strategies by women to reduce food insecurity in an era of climate change: A case of Chireya district, Zimbabwe” was further explored by specifically investigating the adaptation and coping strategies employed by women in the Chireya district of Zimbabwe to reduce food insecurity in the context of climate change. This provides a more in-depth understanding of the specific challenges and solutions faced by women in this region and could help to inform policies and programs that address food insecurity. The existing literature provides valuable insights into gender-specific vulnerabilities, coping strategies, and food security in various settings. However, there is a lack of research focusing specifically on the challenges faced by women in the Chireya district, and how they cope with food insecurity in the face of climate change. This gap in the literature highlights the need for further research to gain a more nuanced understanding of the situation in this area, and to inform policy and intervention programs to reduce food insecurity. This research gap provides an opportunity to explore the experiences of women in the Chireya district, and how gender, socioeconomic factors, and environmental stressors intersect to affect their ability to cope with food insecurity in the context of climate change. This study investigated challenges faced by women in the Chireya district, their capacity to adapt to climate change, and the efficacy of their coping strategies. It also examined how women’s experiences and coping strategies are shaped by their intersectional identities and the social, economic, and environmental contexts in which they live.

2. Methodology

This study employed an embedded mixed method case study design. An embedded mixed methods case study design involves integrating quantitative and qualitative methods within a case study. This is done to gain a more complete understanding of a particular case or situation. A rural village in Gokwe 22 kilometers from the Midlands Capital (Gweru) was the case in point. According to data from the Central Statistics Office (2013), the population density of the Chireya district ranges from 26 to 32 people per square kilometer. This means that the district is moderately populated, with an average of around 30 people living in each square kilometer of land. Given the district’s location in rural Zimbabwe, this moderate population density likely reflects a mix of urban and rural settlements. The mean number of households is 6.5 of whom 3.9 are children. To gain a comprehensive understanding of the lived experiences of women in the Chireya district, a variety of research instruments was used, including key informant interviews, focus group interviews, non-formal interviews, and direct observations. This range of methods allowed for the collection of qualitative data from various perspectives, including community leaders, women themselves, and direct observation of the environment. Of the 64 respondents who participated in the study, 65% were female (35 respondents) and 35% were male (29 respondents). Of the 64 respondents, 13 were interviewed as key informants and 51 participated in focus group discussions. Three focus groups consisted of nine participants, while the other three consisted of eight participants. On 22 June 2022 simple random sampling was used to select a village from the seven villages in the Chireya district, to ensure that the sample was representative of the larger population. A simple random sampling method was chosen to select a village from the seven villages because it is a simple, unbiased, and straightforward method of sampling that ensures equal probability of selection for all villages. This method makes the sampling process efficient, transparent, and fair, and is therefore an appropriate choice for this study. This method also has the advantage of producing a sample that is representative of the larger population.

3. Results

3.1. Data Presentation and Analysis

3.1.1. Respondents’ Gender Distribution

The results (

Table 1. Demographic information.

Gender Distribution	Percentage
Women	62
Men	33
Village heads	5
Ages
50–60	58
61–70	40
75+	2
Education level
Never went to school	3
Finished primary education	58
Secondary education	36
Tertiary education	3
Farming experience in years
0–4	9
5–9	12
10–20	22
21 and above	57

) indicate a significant deviation from the pattern observed in other studies, such as Kongolo and Dlamini (2012) and Zenda and Malan’s (2021) [23,24] studies, where male ownership of livestock dominates small-scale farming systems. In contrast, in the Chireya district, women make up a majority (62%) of small-scale farmers, while men account for only 33%, and village heads constitute a minor proportion (5%). This finding points to a need for further investigation into the unique factors that have led to such a shift in ownership patterns.

3.1.2. Respondent Ages

The results of the survey (Table 1) revealed that respondents’ education levels varied widely, with 58% of respondents having completed their primary education, 36% having completed their secondary education, 3% tertiary education, and 3% never went to school. This indicates that, while the respondents’ level of literacy is reasonable, their education level may be limited in terms of fully grasping complex adaptation and coping strategies for climate change. Nonetheless, this level of education is deemed sufficient for the interpretation and understanding of basic adaptation and coping strategies to climate change, suggesting that education-based interventions may help improve adaptation and coping strategies to climate change in the area.

3.1.3. Respondents’ Number of Years in Farming Experience

The survey results (Figure 2) revealed that a diverse range of experience levels was present among the respondents. About 58% of the respondents had less than 10 years of experience in farming (22% with 10–20 years, 13% with 5–9 years, and 8% with 0–4 years), while the remaining 42% had over 20 years of experience. This finding suggests that a mix of newer and more experienced farmers participated in the survey, offering a valuable perspective on sustainable sheep farming practices across different levels of experience.

As shown in Figure 2, 57% of the residents interviewed had lived in the area for more than 21 years, indicating that they had extensive knowledge of the region’s climatic patterns. While most respondents had lived in the area for a long time, a significant number reported migrating to the area from Masvingo, Chivi, and Mberengwa in search of better rainfall and pasture conditions following the drought of 1992. This suggests that the residents had firsthand experience of how the changing climate affects their livelihoods. Disasters and climate change can influence human migration patterns, necessitating a better understanding of the drivers behind such movements to inform disaster response and preparedness efforts (Parrish et al., 2020) [25]. In 2014, an estimated 184.6 million people were forced to leave their homes due to disasters such as floods, earthquakes, tropical storms, and volcanic eruptions, with 19.3 million people newly displaced during that year alone, according to the Internal Displacement Monitoring Center (IDMC). This instability and uncertainty have significant implications for the adaptive capacity of women in the face of climate change. The lack of permanent housing and a livelihood undermines their ability to adapt and cope with the changing climate and puts them at increased risk of food insecurity and other adverse impacts. Therefore, addressing the issue of disaster-induced displacement is critical to enhancing women’s resilience to climate change.

3.2. Family Size of the Residents

The efficiency of coping mechanisms for tackling food insecurity needs to take into account the household’s size. Household size is a key determinant of how well a family can adapt to climate change, as larger households often face greater challenges in meeting their needs. Therefore, it is important to consider household size when evaluating the efficacy of coping strategies and identifying potential areas for improvement.

As shown by the graph, the majority of households surveyed (61%) consisted of more than seven members, while 31% had between five and six members, and just 8% had four or fewer members (Figure 3). The researchers found that larger families had a harder time adapting and coping with climate change. This is likely due to the increased demands on resources, including food, water, and other necessities, which can be more difficult to meet with a larger household. This finding suggests that family size should be considered when developing policies and programs to help families adapt to climate change.

According to Li (2022) [26], women continue to fulfill traditional roles as mothers and caregivers in their families. While men may migrate in search of economic opportunities, women often remain in their homes to care for children, the elderly, and sick family members. Climate change greatly affects the ability to ensure access to household water, food, and fuel, responsibilities typically shouldered by women and girls. Top of Form.

This highlights the importance of considering gender roles and responsibilities in understanding and addressing the impacts of climate change. In times of drought and erratic rainfall, women and girls may have to travel longer distances and spend more time collecting water and fuel. Girls might be compelled to leave their education in order to assist their mothers with these duties, thus perpetuating a cycle of poverty and inequity. Climate change also has a negative impact on the health of crops and livestock, making it more difficult for women, who are often responsible for producing food for the household, to meet their families’ needs. This highlights the gender-specific impacts of climate change on women’s lives, including their health, education, and economic opportunities. Paniw et al. (2021) [27] assert that demographic patterns significantly impact both the difficulties posed by climate change and the potential remedies for addressing it. Rapid population growth can exacerbate vulnerability to the negative effects of climate change and expose an ever-growing number of people to climate risk. As populations continue to increase, especially in regions most vulnerable to climate change, the ability to adapt and cope with the impacts of climate change becomes more difficult. This suggests that addressing population growth is an important factor in efforts to mitigate and adapt to climate change. Not only does population growth exacerbate the negative effects of climate change, but it is also a driver of greenhouse gas emissions, which contribute to climate change. Meeting the needs for family planning and reproductive health can help build resilience to climate change by reducing population growth and easing the challenges associated with adaptation. Furthermore, meeting family planning needs can help to reduce the growth of greenhouse gas emissions, and, thus, reduce the future impacts of climate change. In this way, meeting family planning needs is an important part of addressing the challenges of climate change.

The inhabitants of Ward 5, including both those interviewed separately and those involved in focus group discussions, generally concurred that there is evidence of climate change in the region, marked by a reduction in precipitation and a rise in ambient temperatures. During the focus group conversations, the majority of participants concurred that climate change is indeed occurring within their community. Among those interviewed individually, 60% agreed that climate change is taking place, while 40% were unsure whether the changes in precipitation were due to climate change or were a sign of God’s anger with the people.

Inhabitants have indicated that they no longer experience the same rainfall patterns observed in the 1980s and 1990s, making it difficult for them to anticipate suitable conditions for planting crops. They reported the common rain names they used to receive, which include (the rain that washes away the chaff), (the rain that facilitates the blooming of the trees), and (the rains that signals the starting of the rainy season). They further clarified that they now receive only one type of rain, and that things have changed because there is no signaling of rainfall that tells them when to plant and/or prepare their agriculture activities.

One of the elderly women narrated: “Now we are not receiving the types of rains we used to get in this area long back, therefore we are now making use of every raindrop, regardless of when it falls)”. This quote from the elderly woman captures the change in rainfall patterns that farmers in the area are experiencing, and the resulting need for adaptation and increased water efficiency. The expression “making use of every raindrop” conveys the sense of urgency and the importance of water conservation strategies, highlighting the adaptability and resilience of small-scale farmers in the face of climate change.

Residents also noted other changes in their local environment, such as an increased infestation of mopane trees by caterpillars during the spring, and the failure of fruit trees to bear fruit in some years. They also mentioned the increased population of crickets year-round, which indicates decreased precipitation. These changes, along with the changes in rainfall patterns, suggest a disruption in the natural cycles of the environment, which may be a consequence of climate change.

The residents reported the significant reduction of trees in the area as another indicator of climate change. One of them explained: “See now trees have been finished. When we arrived here there were many tree species, such that you could hardly move across the tress or bushes. Such things show that there is climate change”. This quote captures a powerful observation by the residents, highlighting the rapid decline in tree populations as a potential sign of climate change. The loss of trees can have serious implications for the surrounding environment, including soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, and decreased carbon sequestration. The comment “when we arrived here” also alludes to the resident’s long-term perspective, suggesting that the changes they have witnessed have been taking place over an extended period of time.

In the context of this paper, “climate change” refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity. A UNICEF report in 2010 indicates that climate change impacts in the sub-Sahara region will result in mortality and injury from extreme weather events; increase in risk of water scarcity; changes in the transmission, incidence, and distribution of water-, food-, and vector-borne diseases; migration and declining livelihoods; and heightened risk of food insecurity and child malnutrition (Hertel and Rosch, 2010; Baker and Anttila-Hughes, 2020) [28,29].

3.3. The Effects of Climate Change on Livelihoods

The graph depicts significant impacts of climate change as elucidated by the inhabitants (Figure 4). According to the graph above, 100% of residents noted that climate change resulted in decreased agricultural yields and increased livestock deaths. In total, 95% of the respondents interviewed indicated experiencing a shortage of water and income, while 85% reported observing siltation in water reservoirs. Generally, this led to a reduction in the physical, human, financial, economic, natural, and social assets base thereby making the residents more vulnerable to facing climate change. Abid et al. (2015) [30] found that the farmers’ main concern related to climate change is water insecurity. Farmers are facing challenges such as unpredictability in the monsoon rains, spatial and temporal variation in rainfall, increasing frequency of drought, rising water demands, falling groundwater levels, and declining water quality. These challenges make it difficult for farmers to grow crops and make a living. The impact of climate change on farmers’ livelihoods necessitates a comprehensive approach that considers factors such as local infrastructure, education, economic development, and social security to ensure sustainable development (Wu, 2023) [31]. This is a compelling example of how climate change impacts can have complex and far-reaching consequences for different groups of people.

Residents reported that the reduction in maize yields is due to high air temperatures and a significant reduction in precipitation. Since the year 2000, maize production has been negatively impacted, with some farmers unable to produce enough maize to feed their families through the next growing season. These changes have had a significant impact on the food security of the local community, and the farmers’ inability to produce sufficient maize highlights the severity of the situation. This has led to increased poverty and hardship in the community.

The decrease in crop production was said to be exacerbated by significant livestock deaths, attributed to a scarcity of water and food during the dry season. One hundred households surveyed cited this as another consequence of climate change. One respondent narrated: “we just put our maize seeds without ploughing because our cattle died, due to lack of pastures. When rains come, they do not infiltrate. The water runs off. As a result, crops quickly dry up, especially during the dry spell and many households get poor crop yields and continue to impoverish the community”. It was reported that this causes food insecurity and a reduction in the general livelihoods of people. The statement points to a vicious cycle caused by a combination of environmental, socioeconomic, and cultural factors. The lack of cattle to plough the land reduces the amount of soil disturbance, which makes the soil more compacted and less able to absorb rainfall. This increases runoff and erosion, which leads to reduced water infiltration. The combination of these factors leads to soil degradation, which in turn reduces crop yields and negatively impacts the livelihoods of small-scale farmers. The cycle is perpetuated as impoverished households struggle to afford new livestock and the cycle of soil degradation and reduced crop yields continues.

Approximately 95% of respondents indicated experiencing water scarcity and reduced income due to the impacts of climate change, with 88% also mentioning the siltation of water reservoirs as another significant issue. One of them narrated: “people grow their crops along the flood plains. When rains come, they wash away the soil and deposit it in our dams, destroying work that was done. As a result, our cattle struggle to get water and eventually die”. This quote illustrates the severe consequences of soil erosion on livestock farming. When heavy rains fall on deforested land, the soil loses its ability to hold water and sediment, resulting in floods that damage dams, impede access to water, and potentially cause livestock deaths. The direct connection between deforestation, soil erosion, and the impact on livestock farming is a stark reminder of the interconnectivity of environmental factors and the vulnerability of small-scale farmers to climate-related disasters.

At least 60% of participants highlighted that when water in the dams gets finished it becomes very smelly and causes many diseases such as red water to livestock and increases their mortality. As a result, people struggle for draught power at the onset of the season and struggle to sell their cattle in order to buy food because buyers need healthy cattle.

In total, 100% of the respondents reported high livestock mortality as an effect of climate change in the area. One of the elders said “our cattle drink water once in every two or three days during the dry season. As a result, many cattle would have died already by the time the rains falls. Some of us do not even have one. They all died”. The quote from this elder powerfully communicates the tragic impact of climate change on livestock mortality in the area. The fact that 100% of respondents reported high livestock mortality due to climate change underscores the severity of the problem and the urgent need for action. The quote describes the dire circumstances faced by the local community, where cattle are forced to go without drinking water at increasingly prolonged intervals during the dry season, leading to severe dehydration and eventual death.

They further reported that most of the areas have no grass, especially during the dry season, and that little grass is found along river flood plains. They do not keep their cattle in the kraals during the night because they would want them to graze and avoid high temperatures during the day. Unfortunately, it is during this time that thieves come and drive the cattle away with the intention of stealing them. As a result, livelihoods are affected since cattle play a pivotal role in day to day living.

This also brought attention to the problem of inadequate soil fertility. The respondents mentioned that in the past, they relied on spreading cattle manure to enhance soil quality. However, with the absence of cattle, soil fertility has noticeably decreased. Consequently, despite receiving rainfall, crops struggle to grow quickly or yield satisfactory results due to the poor condition of the soil. A resident explained: “maize has its own days of maturity. When its time for the maize to mature, it does so even without reaching its full height. Therefore, it will not give good yields”. They reported that this causes many households to be food insecure and in poverty. This quote illustrates the devastating effects of climate change on maize production and, consequently, food security and poverty levels in the area. The early maturity of maize plants due to inadequate rainfall and high temperatures results in stunted growth, leading to reduced yields. The resident’s comment about maize having “its own days of maturity” highlights the vulnerability of maize production to climate change, as the natural cycles and rhythms of the crop are disrupted. The direct link between poor maize yields, food insecurity, and poverty underscores the far-reaching consequences of climate change for small-scale farmers and their communities.

Residents further explained that their poor livelihood as a result of climate change was not entirely the result of high temperatures and low rainfall but also wild animals. It was reported that “due to the reduction of wild fruits and natural vegetation, wild animals such as baboons and wild pigs steal maize cobs at night. Sometimes the elephants come during the night and steal the maize only to leave us without food”. This quote highlights the devastating consequences of climate change for the delicate balance between wildlife and agriculture in the area. As natural vegetation and wild fruits become scarce due to climate change, wild animals such as baboons, wild pigs, and elephants are forced to seek alternative food sources, often raiding maize fields at night. The destruction of crops by these animals further exacerbates the food security issues already plaguing the community, as farmers are left with little or no harvest to feed their families. This interaction between wildlife, agriculture, and climate change is a poignant example of the complex and far-reaching effects of environmental degradation.

It is estimated that the livelihoods of 70% of Africans are dependent on rain-fed agriculture, an activity that is characterized by small-scale, subsistence farms that are vulnerable to a variety of stresses, including those associated with climate change (Hlophe-Gindza and Mpandeli, 2021) [32]. Due to its largely adverse effects on African agriculture and livelihoods, climate change has a negative impact on food security (Challinor et al., 2007; Ribeiro and Rodriguez, 2020) [33,34].

The primary focus of research regarding the impact of climate change on food in Africa, as highlighted in assessments by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), centers on changes in crop yields and food production (Pickson and Boateng, 2021) [35]. The literature discussing food security underscores that ensuring food security depends not only on food production but also on factors such as food access and utilization (Adepoju and Obialo, 2022) [36]. While food security is crucial for sustaining human life, individuals’ well-being is also shaped by broader aspects of their livelihoods, including income, health, and assets (Bashir and Schilizzi, 2013; Schnitter and Berry, 2019) [37,38]. Studies on sustainable livelihoods suggest that livelihoods encompass various assets or capitals that enable people to pursue different strategies to achieve outcomes related to their livelihoods, including improved or worsened food security (Scoones, 1998; Carney et al., 1999) [39,40]. Implementing adaptation strategies is essential to ensure sustainable food security amidst climate change (Murniati & Mutolib, 2020) [41].

Toimil et al. (2020) [42] echoed similar concerns regarding the profound effects of prolonged climate-related crises on job prospects, financial stability, and particularly, the assurance of food supplies. The drought in 2015 notably worsened food insecurity in sub-Saharan Africa, a region already grappling with various developmental hurdles, reaching unprecedented levels. In Somalia, persistent drought and famine, compounded by ongoing violent conflict, have intensified forced displacement. As reported by Houessou et al. (2021) [43], approximately 855,000 individuals are confronting a crisis due to the unreliability of food availability.

3.4. Coping and Effectiveness of Strategies to Reduce Food Insecurity

This study delineated coping strategies as adjustments both within and beyond the farm that households utilize to endure. The table below illustrates these strategies employed by households to mitigate food insecurity amid climate change (

Table 2. Coping strategies to climate change.

Coping Strategy	Percentage of Women Using the Coping Strategy	Effectiveness
Selling items such as plows, harrows, and cultivators.	100%	60%
Altering the time of planting.	90%	80%
Selling domestic animals like cattle and goats, as well as domestic birds like chickens.	90%	65%
Borrowing from kins, friends, and from the chief.	90%	60%
Transitioning to drought-tolerant varieties of crops such as sorghum.	88%	75%
Informal employment.	80%	50%
Decreasing the frequency of daily meals.	80%	50%
Bartering pieces of land for grains.	80%	50%
Unlawful trade of firewood.	72%	35%
Buying on credit and paying after harvests or selling an asset.	70%	50%
Exchanging livestock and assets in return for crops.	70%	50%
Illegal mining activities.	70%	45%
Adding wild fruits to their diet as a supplement.	70%	30%
Depending on funding bodies or contributors.	67%	55%
Excavating deep wells alongside the flood plains.	60%	55%
Reducing the quantity and quality of meals.	60%	40%
Vending untamed fruits in rural hubs and urban areas.	50%	40%
Food for work and money for work programs.	36%	42%
Temporarily relocating children to more prosperous relatives, such as in-laws.	26%	20%
Consuming grains left aside as seeds.	26%	20%
Help from friends.	20%	20%
Arranging marriages for their daughters.	12%	10%

). Residents disclosed actions such as selling assets, with 90% resorting to borrowing food, altering planting schedules, and selling livestock to alleviate food scarcity. Additionally, 36% mentioned exchanging food and money for work, while 20% indicated transferring their children temporarily to more affluent relatives as their sole recourse. Moreover, 12% reported resorting to marrying off their daughters to individuals better equipped to provide for them during times of hardship.

Marginalized social groups disproportionately suffer from the effects of climate change, primarily because of their heightened reliance on natural resources and their limited ability to adjust to these environmental shifts. It is notable that approximately two-thirds of impoverished individuals worldwide are women, underscoring their increased susceptibility to climate variations. This imbalance in power dynamics can lead to women being disproportionately affected by climate change, particularly in terms of their health, livelihoods, and overall well-being. Studies have shown that climate change exacerbates existing gender disparities, impeding women’s growth potential (Okesanya, 2024) [44]. Women often bear the responsibility of ensuring their families’ basic nutritional needs, yet they frequently lack access to and control over the resources necessary for this role, particularly when agricultural conditions deteriorate due to climate-related factors. Consequently, crop failures induced by climate change also jeopardize the food security of entire communities (Anderson et al., 2019; Suranny et al., 2022) [45,46].

Women face a significant deficiency in various rights, including land ownership, control over production resources, access to technology, financial resources, information, and training, particularly in areas such as climate adaptation and disaster preparedness (Okesenya, 2024) [44]. Research indicates that women and children are at a significantly higher risk of mortality in natural disasters, with studies suggesting a staggering 14-fold increase in their vulnerability (Hamidazada, et al., 2019) [47]. This susceptibility is further compounded by socio-cultural biases; for instance, public disaster warnings are often disseminated in locations inaccessible to women, exacerbating their vulnerability. Furthermore, the absence of land ownership titles presents a formidable challenge for women post-disaster, as it impedes their ability to secure new land for resettlement (Menon et al., 2014) [48]. Additionally, women are burdened with increased responsibilities post-disaster, including cleanup efforts, sustaining livelihoods, and caring for the sick (Kretz et al., 2022) [49].

As a result, they not only find themselves with minimal time for activities that generate income but also face the risk of exhaustion and being overworked (Harris-Fry et al., 2020) [50]. Women, often subjected to discrimination in the allocation of resources like food and medicine, are at a heightened risk of illness compared to men. Additionally, due to economic or cultural barriers, they frequently encounter obstacles in accessing medical services (Bridge, 2008) [51]. Climate change exacerbates this situation by increasing the frequency of extreme weather events such as heat waves, leading to a rise in diseases. Higher temperatures facilitate the spread of infectious diseases like malaria and dengue fever (Anderson and Davies, 2016; Kulkarni et al., 2022) [52,53]. Furthermore, discrimination against women exacerbates the likelihood of their health deteriorating. In the aftermath of disasters, there is an increased risk of women falling victim to sexual violence (True, 2016; Memon, 2020) [54,55]. The impact of climate change on family income security also heightens the potential for domestic violence, as it disrupts the traditional role of the man as the primary breadwinner, causing psychological strain (Leslie and Wilson, 2020) [55].

In Mexico, particularly in Tlaxcala, small-scale farmers have adjusted to the challenges posed by climate variability (Below et al., 2012) [56]. For instance, they employ strategies like planting both quick-maturing but less productive corn varieties and slow-maturing but high-yield types. Additionally, they might switch from corn to wheat based on weather conditions. Farmers also adjust their use of fertilizers and pesticides according to climate patterns and diversify their land holdings across different areas. Moreover, households cope with hardships by tapping into savings, seeking loans from formal financial institutions, selling assets, or having their children work instead of attending school to supplement income (Jacoby and Skoufias, 1997) [57]. Other tactics involve managing income uncertainty through actions like taking on multiple jobs or engaging in informal economic activities after experiencing setbacks (Kochar, 1999; Morduch, 1995). [58,59]. These strategies traditionally help households mitigate the impact of unexpected income fluctuations over time. However, certain factors such as lower levels of education may heighten households’ susceptibility to risk (Skoufias, 2007) [60].

3.5. Effectiveness of the Coping Strategies

According to the data presented above, approximately 80% of residents found that adjusting planting dates was effective, while 78% stated that transitioning to more drought-resistant crops yielded positive results. Those who had already made the switch to drought-resistant crops were reported to be in a better position compared to their counterparts.

Additionally, 42% of residents mentioned that obtaining assistance from donors and expanding cultivated land were effective measures. They noted that those cultivating larger plots were better off and even able to support those facing hunger. Strategies such as engaging in casual work, migration, foraging wild fruits, engaging in barter trade, reducing food consumption, and purchasing food on credit were reported by 42% as effective in mitigating food insecurity.

However, some residents expressed dissatisfaction with food aid from donor organizations, arguing that it only addresses short-term needs without providing sustainable solutions. They emphasized the importance of receiving training on improving agricultural yields in the face of climate change. Furthermore, tensions arise during food distribution due to insufficient supplies, leading to conflicts and resentment, especially among female-headed households who often receive inadequate support.

Concerns were also raised regarding borrowing and buying food on credit, as disputes often arise when borrowers fail to repay in a timely manner, leading to animosity within the community. Moreover, residents highlighted the exploitation they face in casual employment, particularly women, who often receive unfair treatment and inadequate compensation for their labor.

In summary, while certain strategies like adjusting planting practices and transitioning to drought-resistant crops have proven effective, challenges persist in accessing adequate support from donors and fair treatment in casual employment, highlighting the need for sustainable solutions and equitable practices.

3.6. Stakeholders Assisting the Communities to Cope with the Effects of Food Insecurity

The following table illustrates the stakeholders reportedly involved in aiding strategies aimed at alleviating food insecurity in the region while also fostering rural development (

Table 3. Stakeholders assisting the communities to cope with the effects of food insecurity and their effectiveness.

Stakeholder	Duties
Local Government	Department that is near the people in terms of service delivery. It assisted to construct the dip tanks to manage livestock well. Assisted with schools and clinics. Managing the local shopping business centers.
Agritex	It links the research science and technology to the needs of the farmers. Farmers trainings. Assists farmers with the seed type (hybrid) to plant. They introduced use of bunds. Introduced gardening projects at Zumba shopping center. Assists in livestock management.
Grain Marketing Board	The government of Zimbabwe’s grain trade and marketing company. It ensures that a number of households receive maize inputs at the onset of the season every year. They reported that they stock maize grains and sell at an affordable price; distribute inputs of maize to the households.
Women affairs	They reported that it assists with initiating and monitoring women’s projects for sustainable development. Women empowerment. Coordinates all donor organizations that are into women and girl projects.
NGOs	Food and money distribution during the period in food insecurity situations.
Social welfare	Assist the more vulnerable populations. Distribute money to the vulnerable like the elderly and crippled to buy food, clothes, and sending children to school.
Environmental Management	Protect the environment from being exploited. They reported that it helped to mitigate veld fires; land degradation; siltation; deforestation.

).

The study found the following coping strategies were effective:

• Changing planting dates;
• Switching to early maturity drought-resistant crops;
• Crop rotation and diversification;
• Increasing the amount of land under cultivation;
• Digging the wells along the flood plains;
• Gardening (growing vegetables) to supplement diet;
• Water harvesting/dam construction;
• Income generating projects (IGPs) for both men and women.

To effectively adapt to changing climatic conditions, various measures across different sectors and levels are necessary. Specifically addressing climate change and gender, adaptation efforts aim to empower women by enhancing their livelihood opportunities. In agriculture, where many women work to ensure family food security, adaptation measures include implementing cultivation and irrigation techniques to ensure crop resilience against natural resource depletion and unexpected weather events. Crop diversification and the use of locally produced organic fertilizers can optimize soil and irrigation use, mitigate erosion, and enhance crop survival during droughts or frost. These measures have the potential to increase production by maximizing existing resources. However, to fully benefit from these strategies, women require complementary training and agricultural extension services to learn about resource-efficient practices, as well as processing and marketing methods for agricultural products.

3.7. Implications of the Findings

This study on the effectiveness of coping strategies to address food insecurity amid climate change highlights numerous challenges leading to unsustainable coping mechanisms adopted by households. Based on the findings, the study has the following implications:

• The need for awareness among farmers regarding the harmful effects of environmental practices such as deforestation, veld fires, stream bank cultivation, and overuse of inorganic chemicals is emphasized. Government institutions responsible for environmental management should actively engage with rural communities to provide this awareness. Additionally, there is a call for the integration and implementation of a comprehensive framework for capacity building. This involves collaboration among government bodies such as the Ministry of Agriculture, Environmental Management Agency, and Local Government to educate farmers about the adverse impacts of environmental degradation.
• The Agriculture Research and Extension Services (Agritex) requires improvement to provide guidance on various drought-resistant crops, such as sorghum, and animals like donkeys. Additionally, there is a necessity to educate farmers about the significance of organic fertilizers and equip them with skills to adapt to fluctuations in precipitation and temperature. Furthermore, integrating indigenous knowledge systems is crucial for addressing climate challenges effectively.
• Government institutions, in collaboration with local communities, should implement improved water harvesting methods. These initiatives would assist communities in accessing domestic and drinking water for both humans and animals in the aftermath of rainfall. Additionally, this harvested water could be utilized for gardening purposes, thereby enhancing food supplies and dietary diversity.
• Early warning systems utilizing efficient information and communication technology are essential to swiftly distribute information to rural communities at the village level. Additionally, it is advisable to provide comprehensive training to farmers on managing various diseases.
• The Agriculture Research and Extension Services (Agritex) should promote the expansion and enhancement of non-farming income streams. This could involve implementing projects aimed at generating income, enhancing skills, and improving living standards for many individuals, enabling households to better withstand the impacts of climate change.
• To combat livestock illnesses, it is imperative to enhance production capabilities swiftly to mitigate losses and enhance productivity. Increasing veterinary extension services and providing training to existing personnel are highly recommended actions to decrease livestock mortality rates and enhance production levels.
• The Ministry of Women’s Affairs, along with its partners, must raise awareness about the significance of empowering girls, and work towards diminishing instances of gender-based violence.

Further research is necessary to evaluate the contributions of both domestic and global organizations in combatting climate change and its impacts. Furthermore, more investigation is needed to develop frameworks aimed at aiding rural communities in effectively addressing challenges related to food security and climate change adaptation.