Exploring Volatile Profiles and De-Flavoring Strategies for Enhanced Acceptance of Lentil-Based Foods: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology of the Review and State of the Art
3. Flavor/Aroma Notes Typically Present in Lentils and Their Origins
4. Effect of Storage and Basic Processing on the Volatile Profile
4.1. Storage
4.2. Dehulling and Milling
5. De-Flavoring Strategies
5.1. Heat Treatments
5.1.1. Pre-Cooking, Roasting, and Drying
5.1.2. Extrusion Cooking
5.2. High-Pressure Processing (HPP)
5.3. Variation in pH
5.4. Alcohol Washing
5.5. Addition of Adsorbents
5.6. Germination
5.7. Fermentation
5.8. Breeding for Low LOX and Lipids
6. Improvement of Communication Strategies
7. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Undesirable Flavor/Aroma Note * | Description | Volatile Compounds | Origin | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Beany | Pea-like, musty/earthy, musty/dusty, sour, nutty, brown | (E,E)-2,4-heptadienal, 1-octen-3-ol, 1-octen-3-one, 3-octen-2-one, 2-pentyl furan, 3-methyl-1-butanol, 2-butanone, 2-pentanone, 2-hexanone, 3-isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine, and 2-isopropyl-3-methoxypyrazine | Inherent in legume seeds, protein and amino acid degradation, oxidation of fatty acids during storage and processing | [26,28,43,44] |
Grassy | Cut grass off-flavor, greasy and fatty | Hexanal, heptanal, nonanal, (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol | Inherent in legume seeds, oxidation of fatty acids during storage and processing | [26,43] |
Green | Fresh green pea | Hexanal, heptanal, nonanal, 2-pentyl furan | Inherent in legume seeds, oxidation of fatty acids during storage and processing | [26,43] |
Rancid | Aged oil and fat | Hexanal, heptanal, octanal, (E)-2-heptenal (E)-2-octenal, nonanal, (E)-2-nonenal, (E,E)-2,4-nonadienal, (E)-2-hexenal, (E,E)-2,4-decadienal, and pentanal ** | Oxidation of fatty acids during storage and processing | [35] |
Brothy | Boiled beef, cooked potatoes, cooked vegetables | Methional | Degradation of methionine during processing | [26] |
Sulfur | Metallic, cabbage, egg, onion | Dimethyl sulfide and dimethyl trisulfide | Degradation of methionine and cysteine during processing | [26] |
Type of Treatment | Mechanism of Action | Advantages | Disadvantages | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Heat treatment (pre-cooking, roasting, and drying) | Reduction in LOX activity; volatilization of off-flavors; new flavors | Low investment cost; operational ease and simplicity | Energy consumption; possible color alterations | [62,63] |
Extrusion cooking | Volatilization of off-flavors; new flavors | Short processing time | Energy consumption; investment cost | [64,65] |
High-pressure processing | Reduction in LOX activity | Short processing time | Investment cost; energy consumption; water consumption | [66,67] |
Alcohol washing | Reduction in LOX activity; solubilization of off-flavors | Low investment cost; operational ease and simplicity | Chemical residues; reduction of protein solubility | [68] |
Variation in pH | Reduction in LOX activity | Low investment cost; operational ease and simplicity | Chemical residues | [28] |
Adsorbents | Physical removal of off-flavors | Low investment cost; operational ease and simplicity | Chemical residues, energy consumption; water consumption | [69] |
Germination | New flavors | Low investment cost; operational ease and simplicity; minimal or no chemicals needed | Possible oxidations | [7,43,70,71,72,73] |
Fermentation | New flavors | Low investment cost; operational ease and simplicity; minimal or no chemicals needed | Long processing time | [74] |
Lentil Product | Type of Lentil | Germination Days | Germination Conditions | Post-Germination Treatments | Beany Volatile Compounds Involved | Effect on Beany Flavor | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Increasing | Decreasing | |||||||
Lentil sprouts | Green lentil, Aldona cultivar | 7 | Soaked 3.5 h at RT, then kept at 20 °C, 99% RH, in the dark | None | n.d. | n.d. | Decreasing | [7] |
Lentil flour | Brown and green lentil | 5 | Dehulled, then sown in Petri dishes at 20 °C, 99% RH, in the dark | Drying at 45 °C for 6 h and grinding | 2-Pentyl furan, nonanal, and decanal | - | Increasing | [43] |
Lentil flour | Altamura lentil, not dehulled | 1 | Soaked overnight, then kept at 22–24 °C, under a wet cloth, in the dark | Drying at 60 °C for 17–18 h and grinding | Aldehydes and alcohols | 2-Pentylfuran | Decreasing | [70] |
Lentil flour | Altamura lentils, not dehulled | 2 | Soaked overnight, then kept at 22–24 °C, under a wet cloth, in the dark | Drying at 60 °C for 17–18 h and grinding | Aldehydes and alcohols | 2-Pentylfuran | Decreasing | [70] |
Lentil flour | Green Altamura lentil | 1 | Soaked overnight, then kept at 22–24 °C, under a wet cloth, in the dark | Drying at 60 °C for 17–18 h and grinding | Hexanal, heptanal, and 1-octen-3-ol | 2-Pentylfuran and nonanal | Decreasing | [71] |
Lentil flour | Green Altamura lentil | 2 | Soaked overnight, then kept at 22–24 °C, under a wet cloth, in the dark | Drying at 60 °C for 17–18 h and grinding | Hexanal, heptanal, 1-octen-3-ol, and 1-hexanol | 2-Pentylfuran and nonanal | Decreasing | [71] |
Protein isolate | Commercial, not specified | 1 | Soaked 5.5 h, then kept at 25 °C, 99% RH, in the dark | Freeze-drying and grinding, then wet extracting the protein | Hexanal and (E)-2-octen-1-ol | Nonanal, 3-octen-2-one, heptanal, and (E, Z)-2,6-nonadienal | Decreasing | [72] |
Protein isolate | Commercial, not specified | 3–5 | Soaked 5.5 h, then kept at 25 °C, 99% RH, in the dark | Freeze-drying and grinding, then wet extracting the protein | Hexanal, (E)-2-octen-1-ol, nonanal, 3-octen-2-one, heptanal, and (E, Z)-2,6-nonadienal | - | Increasing | [72] |
Lentil-based beverage | Brown lentils | 3 | At 25 °C in a commercial sprouter | Sterilizing at 121 °C for 15 min, mixing with water at a ratio of 1:9, blending, and filtering | (E, E)-2,4-nonadienal | Nonanal | Unchanged | [73] |
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Vurro, F.; De Angelis, D.; Squeo, G.; Caponio, F.; Summo, C.; Pasqualone, A. Exploring Volatile Profiles and De-Flavoring Strategies for Enhanced Acceptance of Lentil-Based Foods: A Review. Foods 2024, 13, 2608. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13162608
Vurro F, De Angelis D, Squeo G, Caponio F, Summo C, Pasqualone A. Exploring Volatile Profiles and De-Flavoring Strategies for Enhanced Acceptance of Lentil-Based Foods: A Review. Foods. 2024; 13(16):2608. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13162608
Chicago/Turabian StyleVurro, Francesca, Davide De Angelis, Giacomo Squeo, Francesco Caponio, Carmine Summo, and Antonella Pasqualone. 2024. "Exploring Volatile Profiles and De-Flavoring Strategies for Enhanced Acceptance of Lentil-Based Foods: A Review" Foods 13, no. 16: 2608. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13162608