Characterization of Seven Species of Camellia Oil: Oil Content, Volatile Compounds, and Oxidative Stability
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Production of Camellia Seed Oils
2.2.1. Solvent Extraction Method
2.2.2. Screw Fresh-Pressing Method
2.3. Volatile Components
2.3.1. VOC Sampling
2.3.2. ATD-GC/MS Analysis
2.4. Oxidative Stability Analysis
2.5. Statistical Analyses
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Seed Oil Content
3.2. Suitability for Mechanical Oil Pressing
3.3. Volatile Components
3.4. Oil Stability
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Rahim, M.A.; Ayub, H.; Sehrish, A.; Ambreen, S.; Khan, F.A.; Itrat, N.; Nazir, A.; Shoukat, A.; Shoukat, A.; Ejaz, A.; et al. Essential Components from plant source oils: A review on extraction, detection, identification, and quantification. Molecules 2023, 28, 6881. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- National Food Consumption Database. Available online: https://tnfcds.nhri.edu.tw/index.php?action=index (accessed on 9 July 2024).
- Stefanidis, S.; Ordoudi, S.A.; Nenadis, N.; Pyrka, I. Improving the functionality of virgin and cold-pressed edible vegetable oils: Oxidative stability, sensory acceptability and safety challenges. Int. Food Res. 2023, 174, 113599. [Google Scholar]
- Hsieh, C.M.; Yang, J.C.; Chuang, Y.C.; Wang, E.I.C.; Lee, Y.L. Effects of roasting prior to pressing on the Camellia oil quality. J. Taiwan Agric. Res. 2013, 62, 249–258. [Google Scholar]
- Liang, H.; Hao, B.Q.; Chen, G.C.; Ye, H.; Ma, J. Camellia as an Oilseed Crop. HortScience 2017, 52, 488–497. [Google Scholar]
- Yuan, J.; Wang, C.; Chen, H.; Zhou, H.; Ye, J. Prediction of fatty acid composition in Camellia oleifera oil by near infrared transmittance spectroscopy (NITS). Food Chem. 2013, 138, 1657–1662. [Google Scholar]
- Wei, W.; Cheng, H.; Cao, X.; Zhang, X.; Feng, F. Triacylglycerols of Camellia oil: Composition and positional distribution of fatty acids. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2016, 118, 1254–1255. [Google Scholar]
- Chen, S.Y.; Hsu, C.K.; Hsui, Y.R.; Chien, C.T.; Hsu, F.L. Effect of the fruit harvest date of Camellia brevistyla mother trees on seed size, seed germination, and kernel oil content and composition. Taiwan J. For. Sci. 2019, 34, 263–273. [Google Scholar]
- Wang, C.L.; Lin, Y.H. The extraction and analysis of oils from selected species of oiltea Camellia in Taiwan. Bull. Taiwan For. Res. Inst. 1990, 5, 11–15. [Google Scholar]
- Cheng, Y.T.; Wu, S.L.; Huang, S.M.; Cheng, C.L.; Yen, G.C. Beneficial effects of Camellia oil (Camellia oleifera Abel.) on ketoprofen-induced gastrointestinal mucosal damage through upregulation of HO-1 and VEGF. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2014, 62, 642–650. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Lee, C.P.; Yen, G.C. Antioxidant activity and bioactive compounds of tea seed (Camellia oleifera Abel.) oil. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2006, 54, 779–784. [Google Scholar]
- Lee, C.P.; Shih, P.H.; Yen, G.C. Hepatoprotection of tea seed oil (Camellia oleifera Abel.) against CCl4-induced oxidative damage in rats. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2007, 45, 888–895. [Google Scholar]
- Li, H.; Zhou, G.Y.; Zhang, H.Y.; Liu, J.A. Research progress on the health function of tea oil. J. Med. Plants Res. 2011, 5, 485–489. [Google Scholar]
- Su, M.H.; Shih, M.C.; Lin, K.H. Chemical composition of seed oils in native Taiwanese Camellia species. Food Chem. 2014, 156, 369–373. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Chan, W.C.; Chiu, Y.; Hsu, F.L.; Ho, Y.T.; Chang, H.T. Influences of roasting temperature on physicochemical properties and odorants of Camellia oleifera seed oil. J. Exp. For. Nat. Taiwan Univ. 2022, 36, 61–72. [Google Scholar]
- Luo, F.; Fei, X. Maillard reaction derived from oil-tea Camellia seed through roasting. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2019, 99, 5000–5007. [Google Scholar]
- Chiu, Y.; Chan, W.C.; Yang, N.Y.; Su, N.W.; Chang, H.T.; Hsu, F.L. Effect of heating time on the quality and oxidation stability of Camellia brevistyla seed oil. For. Prod. J. 2018, 37, 205–214. [Google Scholar]
- Wei, C.C.; Yu, C.W.; Yen, P.L.; Lin, H.Y.; Chang, S.T.; Hsu, F.L.; Liao, V.H. Antioxidant activity, delayed aging, and reduced amyloid-beta toxicity of methanol extracts of tea seed pomace from Camellia tenuifolia. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2014, 62, 10701–10707. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Kuo, T.Y. Taxonomic Study of Camellia L. (Theaceae) in Taiwan. Master’s Thesis, National Chung-Hsing University, Taiching, Taiwan, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Fernandez, M.A.; Assof, M.; Jofre, V.; Silva, M.F. Volatile profile characterization of extra virgin olive oils from Argentina by HS-SPME/GC-MS and multivariate pattern recognition tools. Food Anal. Method 2014, 7, 2122–2136. [Google Scholar]
- Chan, W.C.; Chiu, Y.; Chang, H.T.; Wang, L.J.; Hsu, F.L. Investigation of the oxidation stability of 8 plant seed oils. For. Prod. J. 2019, 38, 99–108. [Google Scholar]
- Adams, R.P. Identification of Essential Oil Components by Gas Chromatography—Mass Spectrometry; Allured Publ. Corporation: Carol Stream, IL, USA, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Kovach, W.L. MVSP—A MultiVariate Statistical Package for Windows, ver. 3.1; Koach Computing Services: Pentraeth, UK, 1999.
- CNS 14876; Method of Test for Edible Oils and Fats—Determination of Oil Stability Index. MOCA: Taipei, Taiwan, 2004.
- Robards, K.; Prenzler, P.; Ryan, D.; Zhong, H. Camellia Seed Oil and Tea Oil. In Gourmet and Health Promoting Specialty Oils; Moreau, R., Kamal-Eldin, A., Eds.; AOCS Press: Urbana, IL, USA, 2009; pp. 313–343. [Google Scholar]
- Xu, L.R.; Wang, S.H.; Tian, A.L.; Liu, T.R.; Benjakul, S.; Xiao, G.S.; Ying, X.G.; Zhang, Y.H.; Ma, L.K. Characteristic volatile compounds, fatty acids and minor bioactive components in oils from green plum seed by HS-GC-IMS, GC-MS and HPLC. Food Chem. X 2023, 17, 100530. [Google Scholar]
- Cao, W.; Lin, L.; Niu, Y.; Xiao, Z.; Fang, X. Characterization of aroma volatiles in camellia seed oils (Camellia oleifera Abel.) by HS-SPME/GC/MS and electronic nose combined with multivariate analysis. Food Sci. Technol. Res. 2016, 22, 497–505. [Google Scholar]
- Wu, D.; Xia, Q.; Cheng, H.; Zhang, Q.; Wang, Y.; Ye, X. Changes of volatile flavor compounds in sea buckthorn juice during fermentation based on gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry. Foods 2022, 11, 3471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cherniienko, A.; Pawełczyk, A.; Zaprutko, L. Antimicrobial and odour qualities of alkylpyrazines occurring in chocolate and cocoa products. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 11361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kesen, S.; Amanpour, A.; Tsouli Sarhir, S.; Sevindik, O.; Guclu, G.; Kelebek, H.; Selli, S. Characterization of aroma-active compounds in seed extract of black cumin (Nigella sativa L.) by aroma extract dilution analysis. Foods. 2018, 7, 98. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Ming, T.L. Monograph of the Genus Camellia; Yunnan Science and Technology Press: Kunming, China, 2000; pp. 67–313. [Google Scholar]
- Wang, Y.; Li, J.; Fan, Z.; Wu, D.; Yin, H.; Li, X. Characterization of the complete chloroplast genome of Camellia brevistyla, an oil-rich and evergreen shrub. Mitochondrial DNA Part B 2020, 5, 386–387. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yin, X.; Huang, B.; Wang, B.; Xu, L.A.; Wen, Q. The complete chloroplast genome of Camellia brevistyla (Hayata) Coh. St. (Theaceae: Ericales) from China based on PacBio and Illumina data. Mitochondrial DNA Part B 2021, 6, 2246–2248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yu, X.Q.; Gao, L.M.; Soltis, D.E.; Soltis, P.S.; Yang, J.B.; Fang, L.; Yang, S.X.; Li, D.Z. Insights into the historical assembly of East Asian subtropical evergreen broadleaved forests revealed by the temporal history of the tea family. New Phytol. 2017, 215, 1235–1248. [Google Scholar]
- Kerr, B.J.; Kellner, T.A.; Shurson, G.C. Characteristics of lipids and their feeding value in swine diets. J. Anim. Sci. Biotechnol. 2015, 6, 30. [Google Scholar]
- Yang, K.M.; Hsu, F.L.; Chen, C.W.; Hsu, C.L.; Cheng, M.C. Quality characterization and oxidative stability of Camellia seed oils produced with different roasting temperatures. J. Oleo Sci. 2018, 67, 389–396. [Google Scholar]
- Taghvaei, M.; Jafari, S.M. Application and stability of natural antioxidants in edible oils in order to substitute synthetic additives. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2015, 52, 1272–1282. [Google Scholar]
- Zeng, J.; Wang, W.; Chen, Y.; Liu, X.; Xu, Q.; Qi, S.; Lan, D.; Wang, Y. Typical Characterization of Commercial Camellia Oil Products Using Different Processing Techniques: Triacylglycerol profile, bioactive compounds, oxidative stability, antioxidant activity and volatile compounds. Foods 2022, 11, 3489. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ha, J.; Seo, D.W.; Chen, X.; Hwang, J.B.; Shim, Y.S. Determination of Hexanal as an oxidative marker in vegetable oils using an automated dynamic headspace sampler coupled to a gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer. Anal. Sci. 2011, 27, 873–878. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
Oil Content (%) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Taiwan Native Camellia spp. | Taiwan Commercial Camellia spp. | ||||||
Sect. | Camellia | Heterogenea | Paracamellia | Thea | Paracamellia | Thea | |
Species | C. japonica | C. furfuracea | C. laufoshanensis | C. formosensis | C. brevistyla | C. oleifera | C. sinensis |
Solvent extraction | 54.1 | 59.7 | 50.3 | 24.3 | 44.5 | 53.3 | 32.0 |
Screw pressing | 45.7 | 49.4 | 32.5 | 1.2 | 32.3 | 37.1 | 8.7 |
Compounds | AI # | Area (%) ## | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C. japonica | C. furfuracea | C. laufo- shanensis | C. formosensis | C. brevistyla | C. oleifera | C. sinensis | ||
2-Pentanone | 689 | 0.2 ± 0.2 cd | 1.0 ± 0.2 ab | 0.5 ± 0.1 bc | 0.1 ± 0.1 d | 1.2 ± 0.1 a | 0.1 ± 0.0 cd | 1.1 ± 0.2 a |
Pentanal | 695 | 0.2 ± 0.2 b | 1.0 ± 0.2 b | 1.6 ± 0.4 b | 5.3 ± 2.6 a | 2.9 ± 0.7 ab | 1.0 ± 0.2 b | 1.9 ± 0.2 ab |
Acetoin | 700 | 6.8 ± 1.5 c | 6.9 ± 0.5 c | 3.0 ± 1.8 cd | 13.7 ± 3.7 b | 0.5 ± 0 d | 3.3 ± 0.8 cd | 28.4 ± 0.1 a |
3-Methyl-butanenitrile | 718 | 4.2 ± 1.4 ab | 5.7 ± 1.6 a | 1.6 ± 0.4 b | 3.7 ± 1.1 ab | 1.6 ± 0.2 b | 1.4 ± 0.2 b | 4.3 ± 1.2 ab |
Isopentyl alcohol | 723 | 15.8 ± 4.8 ab | 10.4 ± 1.8 bc | 13.5 ± 3.5 abc | 9.5 ± 1.3 bc | 6.2 ± 0.7 c | 9.3 ± 2.0 bc | 20.0 ± 2.9 a |
2-Methyl-1-Butanol | 725 | 4.3 ± 1.8 b | 4.6 ± 1.4 b | 10.7 ± 2.7 a | 2.2 ± 0.2 b | 1.6 ± 0.4 b | 1.7 ± 0.7 b | 2.6 ± 2.3 b |
1-Pentanol | 754 | 0.8 ± 0.1 c | 1.4 ± 0.2 c | 3.9 ± 0.7 b | 4.2 ± 0.2 b | 17.0 ± 1.3 a | 4.9 ± 1.3 b | 4.9 ± 0.3 b |
2,3-Butanediol | 774 | 9.2 ± 2.2 ab | 9.1 ± 1.7 ab | 7.8 ± 2.1 bc | 15.6 ± 3.6 a | 1.7 ± 0.7 c | 10.4 ± 1.6 ab | 7.6 ± 1.6 bc |
[R-(R*,R*)]-2,3-Butanediol | 788 | 14.0 ± 4.6 a | 12.2 ± 2.5 a | 8.9 ± 3.7 ab | 13.3 ± 3.3 a | 1.7 ± 0.8 b | 5.8 ± 1.2 ab | 7.2 ± 2.3 ab |
Hexanal | 796 | 1.5 ± 0.2 c | 9.1 ± 1.8 bc | 13.7 ± 2.7 b | 11.5 ± 3.3 b | 33.9 ± 5.6 a | 11.6 ± 0.9 b | 8.9 ± 0.5 bc |
Methyl-pyrazine | 813 | 2.5 ± 0.3 b | 0.2 ± 0.2 c | n.d. | 0.3 ± 0.1 c | n.d. | 5.1 ± 0.4 a | 0.2 ± 0.0 c |
2-Methylbutanoic acid ethyl ester | 840 | 0.8 ± 0.1 b | 1.2 ± 0.3 a | 0.4 ± 0.1 bc | 0.1 ± 0.1 c | n.d. | 0.1 ± 0.0 c | 0.4 ± 0.1 bc |
1-Methoxy-2-propyl acetate | 861 | 0.9 ± 0.8 ab | 4.1 ± 2.7 a | n.d. | 3.5 ± 0.1 ab | n.d. | n.d. | 0.5 ± 0.8 ab |
1-Hexanol | 863 | 0.4 ± 0.5 b | 0.7 ± 1.2 b | 5.7 ± 0.8 a | n.d. | 8.5 ± 1.7 a | 2.2 ± 0.2 b | 1.6 ± 0.3 b |
Heptanal | 901 | 0.1 ± 0.1 b | 0.5 ± 0.4 b | 1.6 ± 0.5 a | 0.6 ± 0.2 b | 2.0 ± 0 a | 0.6 ± 0.2 b | 0.5 ± 0.2 b |
Butyrolactone | 903 | 19.2 ± 3.1 a | 19.1 ± 3.9 a | 13.2 ± 2.8 ab | 2.7 ± 0.8 c | 4.4 ± 0.3 bc | 14.1 ± 4.5 a | 3.7 ± 0.7 c |
2,5-Dimethyl-pyrazine | 906 | 12.0 ± 1.3 b | 0.1 ± 0.1 c | 0.2 ± 0.4 c | 1.1 ± 0.3 c | n.d. | 18.7 ± 2.1 a | 0.4 ± 0.2 c |
Benzaldehyde | 946 | 0.2 ± 0.0 d | 1.1 ± 0.1 ab | 0.8 ± 0.1 bc | 1.3 ± 0.4 a | 0.5 ± 0.1 bcd | 0.5 ± 0.0 bcd | 0.3 ± 0.2 cd |
(E)-2-Heptenal | 947 | n.d. | 0.0 ± 0.1 c | n.d. | 1.3 ± 0.2 a | 0.7 ± 0.1 b | 0.4 ± 0.1 bc | 0.4 ± 0.2 bc |
1-Heptanol | 966 | n.d. | 0.1 ± 0.1 b | 0.9 ± 0.3 b | 0.1 ± 0.1 b | 2.5 ± 0.8 a | 0.9 ± 0.2 b | 0.1 ± 0.1 b |
Octanal | 1002 | 0.0 ± 0.1 b | 0.7 ± 0.2 b | 3.6 ± 0.7 a | 0.5 ± 0.1 b | 4.6 ± 1.2 a | 1.6 ± 0.3 b | 0.2 ± 0.1 b |
Benzeneacetaldehyde | 1031 | n.d. | 1.3 ± 0.6 a | 0.0 ± 0.1 b | n.d. | 0.1 ± 0.1 b | 0.4 ± 0.2 b | n.d. |
Nonanal | 1104 | 0.2 ± 0.2 b | 3.3 ± 1.2 a | 3.1 ± 1.1 a | 1.3 ± 0.2 ab | 2.6 ± 0.8 ab | 1.3 ± 0.4 ab | 0.4 ± 0.3 b |
trans-Methyl cinnamate | 1382 | 2.7 ± 1.7 a | n.d. | 0.1 ± 0.0 b | n.d. | n.d. | 0.1 ± 0.0 b | n.d. |
(E,E)-α-Farnesene | 1505 | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | 2.3 ± 0.2 a | n.d. | n.d. | 0.3 ± 0.1 b |
1-Heptadecene | 1694 | 0.2 ± 0.1 a | 1.1 ± 0.8 a | 0.3 ± 0.1 a | 0.6 ± 0.5 a | 0.2 ± 0.1 a | 0.2 ± 0.1 a | 0.3 ± 0.1 a |
Ketones | 26.2 ± 2.5 abc | 27.2 ± 3.5 ab | 17.1 ± 3.4 c | 16.7 ± 3.3 c | 6.8 ± 0.3 d | 17.8 ± 4 bc | 33.2 ± 0.6 a | |
Aldehydes | 3.0 ± 0.9 d | 19.8 ± 3.1 bc | 25.5 ± 1.4 b | 23.8 ± 7.4 bc | 48.6 ± 3.8 a | 18.7 ± 0.7 bc | 13.6 ± 0.4 cd | |
Nitrogen-containing compounds | 18.8 ± 0.4 b | 6.0 ± 1.7 c | 2.4 ± 0.1 cd | 5.2 ± 0.7 cd | 1.6 ± 0.2 d | 25.3 ± 2.5 a | 5.0 ± 1.1 cd | |
Alcohols | 44.6 ± 0.8 abc | 39.0 ± 2.1 bc | 51.8 ± 2.5 a | 45.4 ± 5.6 ab | 40.5 ± 3.1 bc | 35.4 ± 0.7 c | 44.1 ± 1 abc | |
Furanic compounds | 1.3 ± 0.0 ab | 0.6 ± 0.1 d | 1.2 ± 0.3 abc | 1.0 ± 0.2 abcd | 0.6 ± 0.2 cd | 1.6 ± 0.1 a | 0.8 ± 0.2 bcd | |
Esters | 6.0 ± 1.6 a | 6.2 ± 2.7 a | 1.6 ± 0.4 bc | 4.7 ± 0.6 ab | 0.2 ± 0.2 c | 0.7 ± 0.1 bc | 1.0 ± 1.0 bc | |
Terpenes | 0.0 ± 0.0 c | 0.0 ± 0.0 c | 0.0 ± 0.0 c | 2.3 ± 0.2 a | 0.0 ± 0.0 c | 0.0 ± 0.0 c | 0.3 ± 0.1 b |
Taiwan Native Camellia spp. | Taiwan Commercial Camellia spp. | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sect. | Camellia | Heterogenea | Paracamellia | Paracamellia | Thea | |
Species | C. japonca | C. furfuracea | C. laufoshanensis | C. brevistyla | C. oleifera | C. sinensis |
0 month | 10.4 ± 0.0 a | 8.4 ± 0.0 b | 3.8 ± 0.0 d | 0.8 ± 0.1 f | 4.3 ± 0.0 c | 1.5 ± 0.0 e |
6 months | 7.5 ± 0.0 b | 8.1 ± 0.0 a | 1.6 ± 0.0 c | 0.5 ± 0.0 e | 1.4 ± 0.1 cd | 1.4 ± 0.0 d |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Hsu, F.-L.; Chen, Y.-J.; Hsu, C.-K.; Wang, L.-J. Characterization of Seven Species of Camellia Oil: Oil Content, Volatile Compounds, and Oxidative Stability. Foods 2024, 13, 2610. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13162610
Hsu F-L, Chen Y-J, Hsu C-K, Wang L-J. Characterization of Seven Species of Camellia Oil: Oil Content, Volatile Compounds, and Oxidative Stability. Foods. 2024; 13(16):2610. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13162610
Chicago/Turabian StyleHsu, Fu-Lan, Ying-Ju Chen, Chun-Kai Hsu, and Liang-Jong Wang. 2024. "Characterization of Seven Species of Camellia Oil: Oil Content, Volatile Compounds, and Oxidative Stability" Foods 13, no. 16: 2610. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13162610