Spirulina/Arthrospira/Limnospira—Three Names of the Single Organism
Abstract
:1. A Historical and Taxonomic Introduction: From Spirulina and Arthrospira to Limnospira
- Trichome helix usually nearly closed (i.e., spring-like coil); cross walls thin and usually invisible with light microscope; cell width typically 2–4 µm, permanently motile by rotation. Form—genus Spirulina.
- Trichome helix usually open (i.e., as stretched spring); cross walls visible with light microscopy; cell width typically 6–12 µm; gas vesicles generally present. Form—genus Arthrospira [17].
- Spirulina spp.—12 species with the type strain Spirulina subsalsa;
- Arthrospira spp.—about 35 species with the type strain Arthrospira jenneri;
- Limnospira spp.—4 species with the type strain Limnospira fusiformis (formerly Spirulina fusiformis), as well as Limnospira (formerly Spirulina or Arthrospira) platensis, Limnospira (formerly Spirulina or Arthrospira) maxima, and Limnospira (formerly Spirulina or Arthrospira) indica, which are commonly mass-cultivated to produce spirulina biomass for sale on the market.
2. Biochemical Characterization of Spirulina
2.1. Protein Value of Spirulina
2.2. Lipids and Fatty Acids
2.3. Phenolic Compounds
2.4. Polysaccharides
3. Culturing Spirulina: Quality Control and Standardization Issues
- (1)
- The choice of species, namely stress-tolerant or enhanced in stability;
- (2)
- Specific inhibitors and ambient conditions of biological pollution;
- (3)
- Appropriate cultivation technology;
- (4)
- Pollution monitoring;
- (5)
- Quality control.
4. Genetic Modification of Spirulina: Achievements and Perspectives
5. Spirulinomics (Limnospiromics)
5.1. Genomics—Whole-Genome Sequencing
5.2. Transcriptomics
5.3. Proteomics
Effects | Targets | References |
---|---|---|
Antiviral | Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) | [156] |
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) | [156] | |
COVID (SARS-CoV-2) | [157] | |
Antioxidant | Free radicals, lipid peroxidation | [158] |
Anti-inflammatory | NO-synthase, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin-6 | [157,158,159] |
Anticancer | Inhibition of the proliferation of tumor cells, triggering cell cycle arrest, and induction of apoptosis via different signaling pathways | [160] |
Antidiabetic | Improving fasting blood sugar, total cholesterol, triglycerides, increasing the high-density lipoprotein cholesterol | [161,162] |
Antimicrobial | Inhibition of bacterial growth via antimicrobial peptides, phenolic compounds (no exact mechanism reported) | [163] |
Antitoxic | Protection from poisonings from arsenic, cadmium, carbon tetrachloride, deltamethrin, fluoride, hexachlorocyclohexane, iron, lead, mercury (detoxification by absorbtion) | [164] |
Hypertension | Lowers systolic and diastolic blood pressure (no mechanism reported) | [165] |
Obesity | Reduces body weight (no mechanism reported) | [166] |
Hepatoprotection | Improvement of sonographic liver parameters (no mechanism reported) | [167] |
5.4. Metabolomics
6. Spirulina in Space
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Substance | Relative Quantities | References |
---|---|---|
Allophycocyanin | Up to 47% of total protein | [34] |
Carotenoids (β-carotene, zeaxanthin, cryptoxanthin) | Up to 2% (d/w *) | [71] |
Chlorophyll a | Up to 2% (d/w *) | [31] |
Chlorophyll b | 0 | [31] |
Palmitic acid | 42–47% of total FAs | [53,55] |
Oleic acid | 2–5% of total FAs | [53,55] |
Linoleic acids | 15–35% of total FAs | [61] |
γ-Linolenic acid (GLA) | 10–50% of total FAs | [63,64,65] |
ω3-FAs | 0 | [72] |
α-Linolenic acid (ALA) | 0 | [72] |
Eisosapentaenoic acid (EPA) | 0 | [72] |
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) | 0 | [72] |
Triacylglycerides (TAGs) | 0 | [73] |
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Sinetova, M.A.; Kupriyanova, E.V.; Los, D.A. Spirulina/Arthrospira/Limnospira—Three Names of the Single Organism. Foods 2024, 13, 2762. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13172762
Sinetova MA, Kupriyanova EV, Los DA. Spirulina/Arthrospira/Limnospira—Three Names of the Single Organism. Foods. 2024; 13(17):2762. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13172762
Chicago/Turabian StyleSinetova, Maria A., Elena V. Kupriyanova, and Dmitry A. Los. 2024. "Spirulina/Arthrospira/Limnospira—Three Names of the Single Organism" Foods 13, no. 17: 2762. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13172762