Mapping Perception: Analyzing Mental Representations of Urban Space in Timișoara, Romania

Abstract

Recent studies have demonstrated the significance of mental maps in facilitating a more comprehensive understanding of how individuals perceive and mentally represent physical spaces. It is of great importance to consider discrepancies between real and perceived environments when utilising mental maps as instruments. The objective of this paper is to examine the mental representations of Timișoara, Romania in order to identify the spatial elements (neighbourhoods, streets, landmarks, urban symbols) that are particularly salient in the respondents’ mental representations of the city. A total of 559 mental maps were conducted using GIS and quantitative methods to indicate the perceived spatial elements. The findings suggest that spatial perception is influenced by certain dimensions connected to respondents’ socio-demographic features. The findings also indicate that peripheral areas of the city are perceived as lacking memorability and attractiveness, confirming that these neighbourhoods do not fulfil the necessary functions of an urban space. It can be concluded that mental mapping serves as an efficient approach to the analysis of community–space relationships. The implications of this study are valuable for any stakeholders with activities in the city of Timisoara and contribute to sustainable, qualitative, and community-based urban planning.

1. Introduction

The topic of mental maps is not a novel one within the field of social sciences; however, it remains relatively under-researched in Romania. Despite this consensus, there remains a paucity of research into the specific ways in which mental geography studies can contribute to our understanding of human communities and their relationships with space [1,2,3,4]. Mental geography is a valid branch of geography, primarily concerned with the study of space. However, it also has a strong interdisciplinary character, as evidenced by the work of Lynch [1] and Gould [5]. This discipline addresses the psychological processes that space elicits in individuals, the relationship between social behaviours and space, the urban symbols that influence perception, and the philosophical implications underlying these phenomena. Mental geography thus occupies a unique position at the intersection of classical geography and humanistic disciplines, including psychology, sociology, and philosophy. However, international studies dedicated solely to urban mental mapping are scarce [6], suggesting that this field of research has significant scientific potential that has yet to be fully tapped for urban planning purposes.

In recent decades, further studies have been conducted on mental maps at the regional level. These have been connected either to past war events [7,8] or to explain mental maps of different regions worldwide [9,10,11]. Mishkova [12] also includes the Balkans.

A review of the literature reveals a paucity of studies within the Romanian school of geography that address the field of mental geography. Prior to the First World War, Romanian geography was following a comparable trajectory to that of geography abroad, with a shift towards behaviourism [4]. The establishment of the communist regime, however, had an impact on the evolution of geography. The period of inaccessibility of international scientific information in the 1970s and 1980s coincided with the zenith of behavioural geography. Nevertheless, contemporary Romanian geographers, particularly those with an interest in urbanism, have a notable inclination towards the mental aspects of geography. Ianoș [13] and Neacșu [14] address the concept of the urban image and its significance in the organization of space. Other studies address the Romanian mental space [15,16,17,18], perception [19,20,21], or identity [22,23,24], but they fall under other subdivisions of human sciences rather than mental geography. A Romanian study that can be considered to fall within the sphere of mental geography is that of Ciobanu [4], which not only provides a detailed analysis of the perception of locals in Bucharest, but also offers a robust theoretical foundation on the concepts and history of mental geography. Ciobanu [4] (pp. 14–15) defines mental geography as “the branch of human geography located in the area of interaction between geography and psychology, which studies the perception of space as a mode of creation, levels of action and resulting cognitive products, as well as imagined or virtual mental spaces”.

The focus of this study is an analysis of the mental perceptions of the city of Timișoara. We chose Timisoara as a case study area because it represents one of Romania’s economic, cultural and academic centres. Studies of mental geography on Timisoara are missing and the mental perceptions of local residents on the urban space would be beneficial to maintain and emphasize the city’s development, compiling useful information for administrative bodies and starting a conversation about the identity of the city and Timisoara’s citizens.

The present study aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the mental representations of Timișoara, with the objective of identifying the principal elements that are perceived and represented by the city’s inhabitants. In order to achieve the aforementioned objectives, the following research questions were formulated:

(1)

What are the critical spatial trends and specific landmarks that stand out in different demographic groups based on mental maps?

(2)

How and why is perceived spatial connectivity more pronounced than other forms of spatialization in mental maps?

We contribute to existing mental geography and urban mental maps studies by addressing three new dimensions: (a) spatial perceptions related to respondents’ socio-demographic features; (b) memorability and attractiveness in peripheral urban spaces; and (c) perception of community and space relationships.

The initial section of this study comprises a review of the existing literature on the subject matter. The second part of the article provides a detailed account of the methodological steps employed in the study. The third part is devoted to the presentation of the study area as a contextual spatial element. Subsequently, the results chapter initially addresses the spatialization of the elements perceived by the respondents and, subsequently, the connectivity with the learned area. The article concludes with a discussion and conclusion section.

2. Literature Review

The notion of mental geography appeared in the scientific literature during the 21st century [25,26]. Some 20th-century geographers addressed themes related to the perception of space, which were later attributed to mental geography [1,2,3,27]. While doing the preliminary work on mental geography, these authors do not name the discipline nor define it. In the 21st century, it is a consensus that mental geography is concerned with the study of space existing in the human mind.

The provenance of concerns pertaining to mental space is a matter of contention within the field of mental geography. It is argued that the preliminary ideas of this discipline were stated in the philosophical writings of Kant [28,29]. This proposition, however, is not generally accepted within the field and is frequently contradicted. For example, Gold [30] attributes the origin of these preoccupations to the Anglo-American school of geography, whose representatives are [31,32,33,34].

In their study of spatial orientation, Trowbridge [35] posits that individuals rely on their own spatial landmarks rather than external reference points such as cardinal directions. Subsequently, Tolman [36] introduces the concept of the ‘cognitive map’ into the field of behavioural psychology. Boulding [37] introduces the concept of an image as an impression formed through experience and underlying behaviour, thereby initiating a new approach to mental geography. In the following year, Lynch published The Image of the City [1], which continues to be regarded as a seminal text in the field of mental geography. Lynch’s work is regarded as the inaugural research project to be classified as belonging within the field of mental geography. A survey was conducted of residents of Los Angeles, Boston, and Jersey City to ascertain their methods of navigation within the city. This revealed the five fundamental elements that underpin the mental maps of these cities: landmarks, nodes, paths, districts, and edges [1].

Lynch’s model of mental mapping has been followed by many social science specialists [38,39,40,41,42,43,44]. In all those classical studies, we observed that people share their own mental image of the space, either verbally or by transposing the mental images in practice. Besides the classical work of Lynch [1], other studies were important in the field. For the recent two decades, more mental map studies were carried out on regional levels [7,8,9,10,11,12]. Specifically, applied studies of mental geography analyze the disparities and similarities between real space and the space created in the human mind through the psychological process of perception. For example, from an economic point of view, mental geography is essential in the tertiary sector of the economy, i.e., the service sector, and particularly in the field of tourism [45,46]. In today’s free market society, effective advertising is the basis on which profits are made. Therefore, the consumer’s perception of the product is the factor that influences their decision to buy or not [4]. This concept is reflected in the tourism industry through the reputation that a specific destination holds in the collective consciousness. Through studies that analyze this reputation, it is possible to identify key elements associated with the destination, strengths that can be promoted more intensively, and weaknesses that can be improved.

Besides the important works in the field of mental geography that we mentioned above and which organized the theory of mental maps and deepened the idea of spatial perception, urban mental mapping has also emerged through identifying the image of the city [47,48]. In this respect, it has been highlighted that identity could be reflected in issues of image, reputation, and place identity [49]. However, most of the previous urban-related studies are placed around urban place branding or broader identity and place issues [50].

The socio-cultural importance of mental geography is a highly variable phenomenon. For instance, mental geography studies centred on a city can furnish information on the perceptions of the local populace, including areas most frequently visited, locations that evoke feelings of fear and insecurity, preferred shopping areas, areas most often ignored, and other subjective aspects that can then be broken down into analyses by different ethnicities, genders, age groups, occupations, education levels, or other social coefficients, resulting in a comprehensive understanding of the local community and its mindset [51].

Going from traditional mental mapping studies [1,2,3,4] to current studies, we observed a transgression from classical forms of mental map representations to including GIS techniques [52,53]. The shift of passing from simple mental mapping representations to using modern techniques has, therefore, emerged in the last two decades. Understanding the mental perceptions of urban residents is valuable for local government bodies, developers, investors and social action organizations. Therefore, mental geography, while not the only solution to meet the need for knowledge of public perception, is an important and effective starting point for urban planners.

3. Materials and Methods

In the initial phase of the present study, a comprehensive review of the existing literature was conducted to ascertain the current state of knowledge in the field of mental geography and to establish a robust theoretical foundation upon which to advance the study.

The data collection method is a graphical representation of mind maps, without which it is not possible to realize the analysis methods necessary for the present study. This fundamental method consists of making a simple request to the respondents: “Draw Timișoara as you have it in your mind”, without giving them any other indications. Respondents are free to use any graphical tool, classical or digital, and no constraints are imposed on the subject to draw. The aim is to represent as close as possible to the respondent’s mental image, unaltered by outside influences. Furthermore, the collection of additional data, including demographic information such as gender, age, occupation, place of residence and place of origin, enables the establishment of correlations between the social–demographic characteristics and the mental maps. The next step was to exhaustively inventory, quantify and analyze the items represented by the respondents.

The following methods were used to analyze the data:

• quantitative analysis of the elements represented in the mental maps;
• flow map analysis of the elements represented in the mental maps.

For this study, 559 respondents were targeted with a simple request: “Draw Timisoara as you have it in your mind”, without any further instructions. The demographic characteristics of the respondents were anonymised, with the exclusion of names and other personal data. The study was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards set forth by the Scientific Council of University Research and Creation of our university, as evidenced by the approval number 33269/23/05/2024.

Each map created by the 559 respondents was imported into a Microsoft Excel (version 365) database, assigned an identification number, and all elements on the map were binary coded. Those elements that have spatial features (e.g., streets, buildings, institutions, points of interest) were assigned spatial coordinates (latitude, longitude). Thereafter, the entire database was uploaded into ArcMap version 10.7, a cartographic software program that was employed to generate maps utilising the choropleth and heat map functions.

With regard to the sample, the gender distribution is relatively balanced, with males and females comprising approximately 50% each. The age distribution is also relatively balanced, with the dominant age group being 45–54 years (

Table 1. Sample used.

Characteristic	% of Respondents
Sex
male	50.09
female	49.91
Age group
0–14	11.63
15–19	7.15
20–24	9.13
25–34	16.28
35–44	14.85
45–54	20.39
55–64	9.48
65 and over	11.09
Occupation
students	27.38
unskilled workers	13.96
skilled workers	18.08
highly skilled workers	17.96
pensioners	14.14
others	8.48
Relationship with the city
Timișoara residents	13.77
Timiș county residents	13.95
Immigrants to Timișoara	18.27
emigrants	10.01
from outside Timișoara	44.00

).

In terms of respondents’ occupations, 27.38% are students, 18.08% are skilled workers, 17.96% are highly skilled workers (highly educated occupations such as doctors, teachers, lawyers, economists, etc.), 13.96% are unskilled workers, 14.14%% are retired, and other occupations account for 8.48% of the sample.

The respondents were divided into five categories, according to their relationship with the city of Timisoara:

• Timisoara residents (people who were born and lived in Timisoara);
• immigrants (people who were born elsewhere and currently live in Timișoara);
• emigrants (persons who were born in Timișoara and currently live elsewhere);
• Timiș residents (persons who live in Timis County but outside Timișoara);
• from outside (persons who were not born in Timisoara and did not live in Timișoara).

44% of the respondents are people from outside, followed by immigrants with 18.27%. Timisoara residents represent 13.77% of the sample, while Timis residents represent 13.95%. A further 10.01% of the respondents are emigrants.

4. Study Area

4.1. Physical–Geographical Framing

The city of Timișoara is situated in Romania, at the confluence of the parallel of 45°47′58″ north latitude with the meridian of 21°17′38″ east longitude. It is located in the central-eastern part of the European continent, within the Pannonian Basin. Timișoara is situated within Romania’s Western Plain, which is intersected by three of its sub-units. The topography on which the city developed is characteristic of the plain, with elevations ranging from 84 to 95 m [54].

Hydrographically, Timișoara and the surrounding area are marked by the Bega and Timiș rivers. The Bega River springs in the Poiana Ruscă Mountains and flows into the Tisa River in Serbia. The river was channelised between 1728 and 1760. The final works were completed much later, when it became possible to regulate the flow with the help of the hydro-technical nodes of Coștei and Topolovățu Mic, which are responsible for the discharge of the surplus flow of the Bega into the Timiș River [54]. The Bega River is navigable for the entire distance from Timișoara to its mouth [55] representing a significant resource for the city from both historical and identity perspectives. It is an engineering triumph for Timișoara and a valuable asset for recreational and tourist activities. The Bega River, which traverses the central area of Timișoara and is bordered by parks on either side, serves as the city’s primary ecological resource and a hub for water sports enthusiasts [56].

4.2. Human–Geographical Framing

Timisoara is situated in a favourable location in relation to other European capitals. The city is located just over 150 km from Belgrade (Serbia), 300 km from Budapest (Hungary), 500 km from Bratislava (Slovakia) and 550 km from Vienna (Austria). It is connected to these cities by both road and rail infrastructure. Furthermore, Timișoara is linked to the Tisa-Danube-Main-Rhine river corridor via the Bega River, although the Romanian section of this corridor has yet to be fully exploited. In terms of cross-border and inter-county cooperation, Timișoara is part of the Danube-Kris-Mures-Tisa Euroregion (DKMT), as well as the Western Development Region, through Timiș County. The DKMT Euroregion was established in 1997 and encompasses the counties of Bács-Kiskun and Csongrad in Hungary, the Autonomous Region of Vojvodina in Serbia, along with the counties of Timiș, Arad and Caraș-Severin in Romania. The objective of cross-border cooperation in the DKMT Euroregion is to develop and expand a range of programmes, including those related to culture, education, sport, the economy and social issues, which are facilitated by the relations between the three member states [57]. Timiș County plays a pivotal role in the Euroregion, representing 19% of the 4 million inhabitants of the collaborating counties. Notably, around 7% of the Euroregion’s population is concentrated in Timișoara alone, underscoring the city’s significance [58].

In terms of inter-county collaboration, Timișoara is the polarizing centre of the West Development Region, being the most populated city, with the most developed economy and the most prominent university centre in the region. After the Bucharest-Ilfov Region, the West Region is one of the national leaders in terms of budget allocated to research and development activities [59]; in 2017, the West Region allocated 0.39% of its Gross Domestic Product to such activities, with Timis County leading the region, allocating 0.61% [60]. This coincides with the large number of students in Timiș, enrolled in the six universities in Timișoara [60].

At the national level, Timișoara is located in the country’s extreme west, but has satisfactory connectivity by road, rail and air transport. Since 2009, Timișoara has been a part of Timișoara Growth Pole, together with other 14 territorial-administrative units (TAUs) [55]. In January 2024, Timișoara’s population exceeded 300,000, while the county’s second-largest municipality, Lugoj, had just over 40,000 inhabitants [58]. All other cities in the county did not exceed 15,000 inhabitants (Figure 1).

From a cultural–historical perspective, Timișoara has been shaped by a complex array of influences, including those from Central Europe, the East, and the Balkans. It has served as a pivotal point of contention [62,63] between the Ottomans, Austrians, and Hungarians, as evidenced by historical records [64,65]. The city has been part of various empires and kingdoms over the centuries, including the Kingdom of Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, the Habsburg Monarchy, the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Romania [66,67,68].

4.3. Demography

The population of Timisoara has been decreasing over the past decade, while the population of the metropolitan area has been increasing [69,70] (Figure 2). From 1992 to 2012, Timisoara’s population was steady, remaining around 335,000 inhabitants. Since 2012, however, the city’s population has been steady. The most drastic decline was observed between 2022 and 2023, when the population fell by more than 6600 in a single year [58].

The situation in the metropolitan area surrounding Timișoara is in stark contrast to that of the city itself. The population of the metropolitan area has exhibited a similar trend to that of Timișoara, with a steady population since 1992, followed by an increase from 2008 onwards. From 2020 onwards, the population of the metropolitan area has increased by 1000 residents per annum. This phenomenon of tandem evolution can be attributed, at least in part, to the expansion of the real estate sector in the communes of Dumbrăvița, Giroc and Moșnița Nouă, which have experienced a surge in growth due to their proximity to the city and the availability of land for new construction projects. The population of Giroc has increased by over 19,000 since 1992, that of Dumbrăvița by over 17,000 and that of Moșnița Nouă by over 12,000 [58]. These communities are becoming increasingly attractive not only to immigrants settling in the Timișoara area, but also to residents of Timișoara seeking a more comfortable lifestyle in an environment that offers a greater degree of spaciousness and privacy.

A review of the total population of Timișoara and its surrounding metropolitan area reveals an increase of approximately 50,000 inhabitants between 1992 and the present (Figure 3). It can therefore be concluded that, despite a reduction in the city’s actual population, Timișoara remains an attractive area, with the surrounding TAUs assuming an increasingly significant role in the evolution of the development centre.

Although the natural population change remained relatively constant between 1992 and 2018 (Figure 4), both natality and mortality remained around 8–9‰, and mortality underwent a change after 2019 [58]. During this period, the mortality rate in Timisoara increased by more than 3‰, negatively affecting the natural increase and causing it to decrease by about 5‰. Similarly, the migration population change is also decreasing (Figure 4). Although the number of settlements in Timișoara was steady between 2011 and 2019, remaining at around 6‰, in 2020 this figure fell to 4.9‰. In contrast, the number of departures is on the rise throughout the period analyzed: from 3.7‰ in 1992 it increased to 6.9‰ in 2012 and to 9‰ in 2021. These trends have negatively affected migration into Timisoara, which is decreasing. Since 2008, migration change values have been negative, starting at −1‰ and reaching −4.2‰ in 2021.

In terms of age groups, the cohorts of children and young people undergo the most significant changes over time. The total population aged 0–24 has decreased from 128,000 in 1992 to 61,500 in 2023. The elderly population (aged 65 years and over) exhibited the most significant increase over the study period, rising from 27,800 in 1992 to 62,600 in 2023. This suggests that Timișoara is experiencing an ageing population. While the population of young people in Timișoara has been in decline, the same age group in the wider metropolitan area has been growing. While the population aged 45 and above and the 15–24 age group remained constant between 1992 and 2023, the population aged 25–34 and 35–44 exhibited a fourfold increase, from 5100 and 6500, respectively, in 1992 to 20,000 and 24,500, respectively, in 2023. Similarly, the population under the age of 14 exhibited a twofold increase over the period, from 10,500 in 1992 to 22,300 in 2023 [58]. Furthermore, the demographic dependency ratio [71] can be employed to illustrate the ageing of the population in Timișoara and the rejuvenation of the population in the metropolitan area.

5. Results

5.1. Key Spatial Trends and Specific Landmarks That Stand Out in Different Demographic Groups

This section presents the analysis of the places in Timișoara evoked by the respondents in the mind maps. As stated in the methodological section, each mental map was analysed, and all the elements drawn on the map by the respondent (e.g., institutions, streets, parks, tourist attractions, etc.) were transposed into a database and assigned longitude/latitude point-type spatial coordinates. Heat maps were then generated according to the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents.

When viewed through the prism of the genders that characterize the respondents, the islands of high density of perception show certain similarities and differences (Figure 5). Both male and female respondents show the most significant concentrations of landmarks in the Cetate (central) neighbourhood.

The male respondents disproportionately overrepresented the following locations: the Metropolitan Orthodox Cathedral, the Bega Canal, the Romanian National Opera, the Victory, Union, Liberty Squares, and 700 Market; the Roses Park; the Botanic Park; the “Maria Theresia” Bastion; the Cardinal Points Fountain; the Polytechnic University in Cetate central neighbourhood. In areas outside the central district, respondents represented shopping complexes such as Iulius Town and Shopping City, West University of Timișoara, County Emergency Hospital, the Stadium, the North Railway Station, the International Airport, and the Green Forest.

In contrast, female respondents demonstrate a lower representation of landmarks with commercial and transportation functions, and a higher representation of cultural, recreational and medical spaces. Consequently, the areas with the highest density on the perception map of female respondents are the Metropolitan Orthodox Cathedral, Bega Canal, Romanian National Opera, “Maria Theresia” Bastion, Huniade Castle, National Art Museum, Banat Village Museum, Roses Park, Children’s Park, Victory Square, Union Square, 700 Market, County Emergency Hospital, West University, Polytechnic University and University of Medicine and Pharmacy.

With regard to the respondents’ occupations, their perceptions of the city also exhibit certain distinctive characteristics. The highest concentration of landmarks remains in the city centre, although specific characteristics of each occupational group can be discerned. In addition to the central areas represented by the Metropolitan Orthodox Cathedral, the Bega Canal, Victory, Liberty and Union Squares, Roses, Children’s, Botanic and Civic Parks, pupils and students significantly evoke educational establishments. The respondents’ occupations are reflected in their perceptions of the city, with specific locations being associated with particular institutions. For instance, West University, Polytechnic University, the University of Medicine and Pharmacy and the University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Banat are all mentioned in connection with the respondents’ occupations. Furthermore, they represent a notable proportion of the North Railway Station, the East Railway Station, the County Emergency Hospital, the Stadium, Iulius Town and Shopping City.

The category of unskilled workers evokes the fewest landmarks, with the exception of the Metropolitan Orthodox Cathedral and the Bega Canal. The North Railway Station, Roses Park, 700 Market, Iulius Mall, County Emergency Hospital and the Stadium represent areas of significant density in the respondents’ perceptions (Figure 6).

The spatial extent of the perception of skilled workers is very similar to that of the occupational category presented above. The exceptions are the appearance on the map of the Shopping City mall and the Banat Village Museum, the decrease in the representation of the North Station, the Iulius Town complex, the 700 Market and the increase in the representation of the university campus, the Victory Square, the County Emergency Hospital and the Stadium, as well as the disappearance of the Green Forest from the map.

Highly skilled workers show a more widespread perception compared to the rest of the occupational categories. They evoke the typical central landmarks in significant proportions: the Metropolitan Orthodox Cathedral, the Bega Canal, Victory Square, Liberty Square, Union Square, Roses Park, Botanic Park, Children’s Park, “Maria Theresia Bastion”, Cardinal Points Fountain, National Art Museum, Huniade Castle, as well as landmarks in other city neighbourhoods: North Railway Station, Iulius Mall, Shopping City, County Emergency Hospital, Stadium, Traian Square, “Queen Maria” Park, University Campus, Banat Village Museum, Green Forest and the International Airport.

The extensive spatial awareness exhibited by highly skilled workers in comparison to other occupational groups can be attributed to the economic, social, and educational standing of this cohort. From these perspectives, highly skilled workers occupy a privileged position, engaged in economically flourishing domains (medicine, economics, management, legal, etc.). They possess an educational and financial standing that affords them the requisite resources to explore and gain a profound understanding of the city.

The category of pensioners evokes several significant landmarks in the city of Timișoara, including the Bega Canal, the Metropolitan Orthodox Cathedral, the Romanian National Opera, Victory Square, Liberty Square, Union Square, 700 Market, and Roses Park. Furthermore, other significant locations in Timișoara are referenced, including pericentral historic neighbourhoods like Iosefin Square, Traian Square and markets: Badea Cârțan, and Mehala Square. Additionally, notable landmarks such as the North Railway Station, Dan Păltinișanu Stadium, Iulius Mall, and Shopping City are mentioned. A salient feature of the perception of pensioners in comparison to the other occupational categories under examination is the fact that they represent a more significant proportion of the County Emergency Hospital. This observation serves to underscore the unfortunate reality of the prevalence of health issues that accompany the ageing process. It should be noted that the County Emergency Hospital is the third most frequently evoked landmark by retired respondents, after the Bega Canal and the Metropolitan Orthodox Cathedral.

In terms of respondents’ relationship with the city of Timișoara, their perception differs. The areas with the highest density are located in the Cetate district, expressed by the Metropolitan Orthodox Cathedral and the Bega Canal, for all categories of respondents (Figure 7).

Timișoara residents (respondents who were born and live in Timișoara) evoke landmarks in 11 distinct neighbourhoods, more than any other category. In addition to the above-mentioned landmarks, they mainly represent the Iulius Town and Shopping City complexes, the Victory, Liberty, Union, Traian and Bălcescu Squares, the Romanian National Opera, the “Maria Theresia” Bastion, the Roses Park, the Botanic Park, the Children’s Park, the North Railway Station, the West University, the Polytechnic University, the County Emergency Hospital, the Stadium and the Banat Village Museum.

Timiș residents (respondents residing in Timiș County outside Timișoara) similarly represent the Iulius Mall complex, the Romanian National Opera, the North Railway Station and the Roses Park, but they give greater importance to other landmarks than Timișoara residents. In addition, respondents from Timiș frequently cite the County Emergency Hospital, the West University, the Polytechnic University, the University of Medicine and Pharmacy, and the International Airport. This evidence corroborates the assertion that Timișoara is the county capital, serving as a hub for medical, academic and transportation needs across Timiș County.

Immigrants (respondents who were born elsewhere and are currently living in Timișoara) often mention higher education institutions: West University, Polytechnic University, and University of Medicine and Pharmacy, confirming Timișoara’s attractiveness as a university centre. The importance of the medical sector in the city is also proven by the category of immigrants, who frequently mention in their mental maps the County Emergency Hospital, the Municipal Hospital and the Children’s Emergency Hospital. In addition, the following squares are often represented: Victoriei, Unirii, Libertății, Badea Cârțan, Rozelor Park, Children’s Park, Cardinal Points, North Railway Station, East Railway Station, Iulius Town, Shopping City, Green Forest urban project and the Stadium.

The most frequently evoked landmarks by respondents born in Timișoara and currently residing elsewhere are concentrated in the central area. These include the Bega Canal, the Orthodox Cathedral, the Romanian National Opera, the Roman Catholic Cathedral, the “Maria Theresia” Bastion, the National Art Museum, the Cardinal Points Fountain, the Victory, Liberty, Union, Mărăști Squares, the 700 Market, the Children’s Park, the Rozelor Park, and the Fish central Fountain. In other areas of the city, landmarks of great importance in the perception of emigrants include the West University, the Polytechnic University, the University of Medicine and Pharmacy, the North Railway Station, Iulius Town, Traian Square, Maria Square, the County Emergency Hospital and the “Dan Paltinișanu” Stadium.

The perception of external respondents (i.e., individuals who were not born in Timisoara and do not currently reside in the city) is the most spatially compact. This can be explained by the limited or non-existent interaction these individuals have with the city. They significantly evoke the following landmarks: the Bega Canal, the Metropolitan Orthodox Cathedral, Roses Park, Botanic Park, Victory Square, Liberty Square, Union Square, 700 Market, “Maria Theresia” Bastion, the Romanian National Opera, West University, Polytechnic University, Iulius Town, Shopping City, County Emergency Hospital, Stadium, North Railway Station and International Airport.

5.2. Perceived Connectivity

Some of the respondents involved in the present study evoked, in their mental maps, localities and counties outside Timișoara, representing them as being connected to the city (Figure 8). In this context, the locality most frequently represented is Dumbrăvița, accounting for 4.6% of the total. It is situated to the north of Timișoara, adjacent to two densely populated neighbourhoods, and extends along the entire western side of the Green Forest. Dumbrăvița was previously an unassuming rural locality. However, the concomitant spatial and demographic expansion of Timișoara has resulted in the concomitant expansion of peri-urban localities. In this context, Dumbrăvița is among the most prosperous localities in the Timișoara neighbourhood.

The evocations of Giroc reflect a similar reality to that of Dumbrăvița. Located on the opposite side of Timișoara, to the south, Giroc is mentioned by 4% of the respondents. As in the case of the aforementioned locality, Giroc is a peri-urban locality neighbouring Timișoara and which has experienced significant development in the last decade.

Moșnița Nouă is the third most frequently referenced locality outside Timișoara, accounting for 3.8% of all mentions. Additionally, it constitutes a component of the peri-urban zone surrounding Timișoara, situated in the eastern section of the city. All three of the aforementioned localities represent some of the most expansive peri-urban settlements in the vicinity of Timișoara. They are frequently perceived, albeit informally, as extensions of the city itself.

Other localities that are perceived to be related to Timișoara include Ghiroda (3%), Giarma-ta-Vii (1.8%), Arad, Chișoda, Remetea Mare, Săcălaz and Șag (1.2%). Furthermore, links between Timișoara and other counties across the country were also highlighted. These included the Oltenian counties of Dolj, Gorj, Mehedinți, Olt and Vâlcea, each representing 0.2% of the total, the counties associated with Timișoara in the West Development Region (Hunedoara, Caraș-Severin and Arad), as well as the county of Alba.

6. Discussion and Conclusions

The concept of mental maps is a crucial element in the comprehension of how individuals perceive spatial environments [1]. Prior research on mental or cognitive maps has demonstrated that individuals represent regional and urban spaces in disparate ways [2,3]. Furthermore, identity image, reputation, and place identity are pivotal in comprehending how individuals perceive the spaces they inhabit [49].

Our theoretical contribution to existing mental geographies and urban mental studies [72] is evident. In addition to the study by Jiang [6] and numerous other comprehensive investigations into urban images and place branding [50], we are unaware of any studies that focus exclusively on urban mental mapping based on demographic differences. In comparison to other studies of mental mapping in urban areas of Central and Eastern Europe and in Romania in particular [4], this study is the first to highlight demographic patterns of people’s perception of space. The inhabitants of a given urban area are characterised by a high degree of homogeneity and have acquired diverse knowledge throughout their lifetimes, which gives rise to differences in their perception of the urban space. Our study thus makes a contribution to existing theories on mental maps, in particular to those concerning mental maps in urban areas of Central and Eastern Europe. Furthermore, it makes a contribution to the existing literature on mental maps in Romanian cities. While existing literature on urban mental maps has primarily focused on the spatialisation of perceived urban elements, our study also introduces new insights into the perceived connectivity of urban environments. These insights could inform urban planning practices, as well as highlight that peripheral areas of the city are not highly perceived by residents.

Our practical contribution to the field of mental mapping, particularly in the context of urban environments, is to highlight the significance of spatial connectivity in shaping residents’ memories. It is of the utmost importance that practical considerations of connectivity remain firmly embedded in people’s minds. Bringing together the key findings of this research, it is possible to formulate concrete observations on the particularities of the population’s perception of the space of the Municipality of Timișoara. From the point of view of the criteria on which perception is based, it can be confirmed that it manifests itself differently depending on the social-demographic characteristics of the individuals analyzed.

The differences in perception of space between males and females are minor. It should be noted, however, that female representation of transportation landmarks and shopping complexes is weaker. This may be due to the limitations on the economic situation and freedom of mobility to which women are directly or indirectly subjected in patriarchal societies. Moreover, the respondents’ occupation influences the spatial extent of the perception of Timisoara. Unskilled workers and skilled workers show the lowest spatial extent, which is due to the modest amount of free time available to employees in these professions. Highly skilled workers, on the other hand, have spatially extensive mental maps. This particularity may be attributed to two factors: the favourable economic situation, which allows respondents to visit places and go out often; and the high level of education, which causes them to be preoccupied and curious about the surrounding space, thereby enhancing their ability to memorise and reproduce perceived images. In terms of connectivity, Timișoara is associated by the respondents with localities of Timiș County, sedimenting the role of the municipality as a polarizing county centre. The localities that are part of the metropolitan area of the municipality are predominantly represented, especially Dumbrăvița, Giroc and Moșnița Nouă, which are also the largest peri-urban areas of the city. The present study identified the most representative spatial landmarks within the city. On the basis of the number of evocations of the respondents, the ten main urban symbols of Timișoara. Their functional diversity attests to the complexity of Timișoara and proves its attractiveness in terms of their cultural-religious, economic, educational, recreational, and medical importance.

The principal limitations of our study are as follows: firstly, due to subjective factors, some respondents lacked the requisite artistic skills to design their own mental maps. Secondly, the poor memories of some respondents meant that they were unable to recall the information required to create their maps. Thirdly, the limited time allotted to respondents to design their maps may have been insufficient. Finally, some respondents may have lacked inspiration, which could have affected the quality of their maps. Furthermore, given the artistic nature of the research method employed, the interpretation of the drawings produced by the respondents may be susceptible to human error and subjectivity. Another potential limitation of the study is the lack of complete control over the sample, given the difficulty in selecting a sample that is perfectly proportional to the population of the entire city, including immigrants, temporary residents, and commuters. Moreover, as this research primarily examines subjective data (i.e., human perception), it is essential to have a high level of confidence in the reliability and accuracy of the data provided by the respondents. It is therefore possible that the data may be erroneous, incomplete or subject to external influences.

Further research could be conducted to gain a deeper understanding of mental maps in Timisoara by providing insights from individuals who perceive the city in different ways. Furthermore, analogous research on mental maps could be conducted in other Romanian cities and in Central and Eastern European cities to ascertain whether comparable or disparate patterns of urban mental maps could be identified.