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A special issue of Aerospace (ISSN 2226-4310). This special issue belongs to the section "Aeronautics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2022) | Viewed by 48919

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Dr. Lothar Bertsch

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Guest Editor

German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Aerodynamics and Flow Technology, Göttingen, Germany
Interests: aircraft noise; noise prediction; aircraft design; flight simulation; noise abatement procedures; uncertainty quantification; auralization; low-noise aircraft design; perception-influenced design
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Dr. Adrian Sescu

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Guest Editor

Department of Aerospace Engineering, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS 39762, USA
Interests: receptivity and transition in boundary layers; boundary layer control; theoretical and computational aeroacoustics; turbulence in fluids
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Noise generated by aircraft continues to be a pressing issue for society, as an increasing number of people residing in proximity to airports make noise complaints on a regular basis. The reduction of aircraft noise is therefore a very important engineering task that would require the careful identification of different acoustic sources around the airplane, the understanding of noise source behavior and ranking along flight trajectories, sophisticated measurement techniques, as well as robust and accurate numerical tools aimed at predicting the generation of noise, the propagation through the atmosphere, and the resulting noise impact along approach and departure flights. For an overall assessment of the situation, the situation has to be assessed along entire flight trajectories rather than assessing limited operating conditions only. Furthermore, it is highly recommended to apply multiple acoustic metrics and account for different and widespread observer locations along the flight. Only then can the overall situation be adequately captured. Obviously, this is a highly multidisciplinary effort and no single discipline can address this problem.

This “Aircraft noise” Special Issue targets research studies in that multidisciplinary context that deal with numerical or experimental investigation that range from investigation of specific noise sources to the assessment of noise generated by the overall aircraft in operation. Both basic and applied research studies involving modelling and simulations of aircraft noise will be considered for this Special Issue. Specific topics that are highly welcome are listed here:

measurements, acoustic camera, beamforming (windtunnel, flyover)
transition from experiment or high-fidelity simulation to flyover situation
aircraft design
flight procedure
computational aeroacoustics
fast prediction and scenarions (multiple flights)
perception influenced design and annoyance studies
uncertainties in simulation
propeller, distributed propulsion and electrification
supersonic flight
jet noise
turbofan noise
sonic boom

Dr. Lothar Bertsch
Prof. Dr. Adrian Sescu
Guest Editors

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

22 pages, 929 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sound-Quality-Based Decision Making in Multiobjective Optimisation of Operations for Sustainable Airport Scenarios

by Umberto Iemma and Francesco Centracchio

Aerospace 2022, 9(6), 310; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9060310 - 8 Jun 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2020

Abstract

The paper deals with a community-oriented approach to the multiobjective optimisation of sustainable takeoff and landing procedures of commercial aircraft. The objective functions to be minimised are defined as the measure of area surrounding the airport where the Sound Exposure Level (SEL) is higher than 60 dBA, and the amount of fuel burned during the procedure. The first merit factor is a measure of the number of citizens affected by a potentially harmful noise level, whereas the second is proportional to the chemical emissions. The novelty of the present approach is the use of a criterion based on sound quality for the selection of the optimal procedure from the Pareto front set. The spectrum of the noise produced by each non-dominated solution is compared to a reference spectrum, the target sound. This is synthesised to meet the acceptance requirements that emerged by a campaign of psychometric tests. The rationale underlying the research is tightly linked to the expected transformation of civil aviation, with the advent of new air transport solutions in urban and suburban environments. The breakthrough nature of the emerging scenarios requires a drastic renewal of the approaches used in the management of operations, and the present work represents a contribution to this evolution. The optimisation is attained adopting a global, deterministic method, and numerical results are obtained for single- and twin-aisle aircraft. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Noise)

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15 pages, 3946 KiB

Open AccessArticle

System Noise Assessment and Uncertainty Analysis of a Conceptual Supersonic Aircraft

by Junichi Akatsuka and Tatsuya Ishii

Aerospace 2022, 9(4), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9040212 - 12 Apr 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2839

Abstract

This paper describes a system noise assessment of a conceptual supersonic aircraft called the NASA 55t Supersonic Technology Concept Aeroplane (STCA), its prediction uncertainty, and related validation tests. A landing and takeoff noise (LTO) standard for supersonic aircraft is needed to realize future supersonic aircraft, and the noise impact due to the introduction of future supersonic aircraft should be analyzed to develop the standard. System noise assessments and uncertainty analyses using Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) were performed. The predicted noise levels showed good agreement with the prior study for both the benchmark case and statistics of the predictions. The predicted cumulative noise level satisfied the ICAO Chapter 4 noise standard, and its standard deviation was approximately 2 EPNdB. Moreover, sensitivity analysis using the obtained datasets revealed strong correlations with the takeoff noise for jet noise, fan exhaust noise at the flyover measurement point, and airframe trailing edge noise. Further understanding of these extracted factors, which were estimated to have a significant impact on the LTO noise, will be beneficial for the development of LTO noise standards and the design of supersonic aircraft. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Noise)

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13 pages, 2008 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On the Fundamental Possibility of a Supersonic Civil Aircraft to Comply with ICAO Noise Requirements Using Existing Technologies

by Victor F. Kopiev, Ivan V. Belyaev, Andrey I. Dunaevsky, Andrey A. Poukhov and Igor L. Trofimovsky

Aerospace 2022, 9(4), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9040187 - 1 Apr 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3090

Abstract

Compliance with environmental protection regulations, in particular, community noise requirements, constitutes one of the major obstacles for designing future supersonic civil aircraft. Although there are several noise sources that contribute to the total noise level of supersonic aircraft, it is the turbulent jet that appears most problematic; jet noise is a dominant noise source for low-to moderate- bypass-ratio engines, and at present there are no effective methods of jet noise reduction other than decreasing jet speed by increasing bypass ratio, which, in turn, is constrained by aerodynamic requirements for supersonic flight. The present study considers a concept of supersonic civil aircraft under the assumption that its total noise is determined by turbulent jets; it is shown that compliance of the supersonic aircraft with the current regulations for subsonic aircraft noise (Chapter 14 Volume I Annex 16 ICAO) would require the decreased jet speed that corresponds to a prohibitively high bypass ratio of aircraft engines. To enable jet noise reduction without necessarily increasing bypass ratio, a novel configuration of supersonic aircraft is proposed that meets the requirements of Chapter 14, thereby demonstrating that the norms of Chapter 14 are achievable for future supersonic civil aircraft with the use of existing technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Noise)

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24 pages, 6062 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Coupled LES-Synthetic Turbulence Method for Jet Noise Prediction

by Joshua D. Blake, Adrian Sescu, David Thompson and Yuji Hattori

Aerospace 2022, 9(3), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9030171 - 21 Mar 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2769

Abstract

Large-eddy simulation (LES)-based jet noise predictions do not resolve the entire broadband noise spectra, often under-predicting high frequencies that correspond to un-resolved small-scale turbulence. The coupled LES-synthetic turbulence (CLST) model is presented which aims to model the missing high frequencies. The CLST method resolves large-scale turbulent fluctuations from coarse-grid large-eddy simulations (CLES) and models small-scale fluctuations generated by a synthetic eddy method (SEM). Noise is predicted using a formulation of the linearized Euler equations (LEE), where the acoustic waves are generated by source terms from the combined fluctuations of the CLES and the stochastic fields. Sweeping and straining of the synthetic eddies are accounted for by convecting eddies with the large turbulent scales from the CLES flow field. The near-field noise of a Mach 0.9 jet at a Reynolds number of 100,000 is predicted with LES. A high-order numerical algorithm, involving a dispersion relation preserving scheme for spatial discretization and an Adams–Bashforth scheme for time marching, is used for both LES and LEE solvers. Near-field noise spectra from the LES solver are compared to published results. Filtering is applied to the LES flow field to produce an under-resolved CLES flow field, and a comparison to the un-filtered LES spectra reveals the missing noise for this case. The CLST method recovers the filtered high-frequency content, agreeing well with the spectra from LES and showing promise at modeling the high-frequency range in the acoustic noise spectrum at a reasonable expense. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Noise)

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28 pages, 9049 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Numerical Study on Aircraft Noise Mitigation Using Porous Stator Concepts

by Christopher Teruna, Leandro Rego, Damiano Casalino, Daniele Ragni and Francesco Avallone

Aerospace 2022, 9(2), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9020070 - 27 Jan 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4799

Abstract

This manuscript presents the application of a recently developed noise reduction technology, constituted by poro-serrated stator blades on a full-scale aircraft model, in order to reduce rotor-stator interaction noise in the fan stage. This study was carried out using the commercial lattice Boltzmann solver 3DS-SIMULIA PowerFLOW. The simulation combines the airframe of the NASA High-Lift Common Research Model with an upscaled fan stage of the source diagnostic test rig. The poro-serrations on the stator blades have been modeled based on a metal foam with two different porosity values. The results evidence that the poro-serrations induce flow separation on the stator blades, particularly near the fan-stage hub. Consequently, the thrust generated by the modified fan stage is lower and the broadband noise emission at low frequencies is enhanced. Nevertheless, the tonal noise components at the blade-passage frequency and its harmonics are mitigated by up to 9 dB. The poro-serrations with lower porosity achieve a better trade-off between noise emission and thrust penalty. An optimization attempt was carried out by limiting the application of porosity near the tip of the stator blades. The improved leading-edge treatment achieves a total of

1.5

dB in sound power level reduction while the thrust penalty is below

1.5

%. This demonstrates that the aerodynamic effects of a leading-edge treatment should be taken into account during the design phase to fully benefit from its noise reduction capability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Noise)

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25 pages, 1078 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Guidelines for the LTO Noise Assessment of Future Civil Supersonic Aircraft in Conceptual Design

by Grazia Piccirillo, Nicole Viola, Roberta Fusaro and Luigi Federico

Aerospace 2022, 9(1), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9010027 - 4 Jan 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3925

Abstract

One of the most critical regulatory issues related to supersonic flight arises from limitations imposed by community noise acceptability. The most efficient way to ensure that future supersonic aircraft will meet low-noise requirements is the verification of noise emissions from the early stages of the design process. Therefore, this paper suggests guidelines for the Landing and Take-Off (LTO) noise assessment of future civil supersonic aircraft in conceptual design. The supersonic aircraft noise model is based on the semi-empirical equations employed in the early versions of the Aircraft NOise Prediction Program (ANOPP) developed by NASA, whereas sound attenuation due to atmospheric absorption has been considered in accordance with SAE ARP 866 B. The simulation of the trajectory leads to the prediction of the aircraft noise level on ground in terms of several acoustic metrics (LAmax, SEL, PNLTM and EPNL). Therefore, a dedicated validation has been performed, selecting the only available supersonic aircraft of the Aircraft Noise and Performance database (ANP), that is, the Concorde, through the matching with Noise Power Distance (NPD) curves for LAmax and SEL, obtaining a maximum prediction error of ±2.19%. At least, an application to departure and approach procedures is reported to verify the first noise estimations with current noise requirements defined by ICAO at the three certification measurement points (sideline, flyover, approach) and to draw preliminary considerations for future low-noise supersonic aircraft design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Noise)

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23 pages, 2151 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation of Landing and Take-Off Noise for Supersonic Transport Aircraft at a Conceptual Design Fidelity Level

by Michel Nöding, Martin Schuermann, Lothar Bertsch, Marc Koch, Martin Plohr, Robert Jaron and Jeffrey J. Berton

Aerospace 2022, 9(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9010009 - 23 Dec 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4156

Abstract

The German Aerospace Center has launched an internal project to assess the noise impact associated with supersonic transport aircraft during approach and departure. A dedicated simulation process is established to cover all relevant disciplines, i.e., aircraft and engine design, engine installation effects, flight simulation, and system noise prediction. The core of the simulation process is comprised of methods at the complexity and fidelity level of conceptual aircraft design, i.e., typical overall aircraft design methods and a semi-empirical approach for the noise modeling. Dedicated interfaces allow to process data from high fidelity simulation that will support or even replace initial low fidelity results in the long run. All of the results shown and discussed in this study are limited to the fidelity level of conceptual design. The application of the simulation process to the NASA 55t Supersonic Technology Concept Aeroplane, i.e., based on non-proprietary data for this vehicle, yields similar noise level predictions when compared to the published NASA results. This is used as an initial feasibility check of the new process and confirms the underlying methods and models. Such an initial verification of the process is understood as an essential step due to the lack of available noise data for supersonic transport aircraft in general. The advantageous effect of engine noise shielding on the resulting system noise is demonstrated based on predicted level time histories and certification noise levels. After this initial verification, the process is applied to evaluate a conceptual supersonic transport design based on a PhD thesis with two engines mounted under the wing, which is referred to as aircraft TWO. Full access to this vehicle’s design and performance data allows to investigate the influence of flight procedures on the resulting noise impact along approach and departure. These noise results are then assembled according to proposed Federal Aviation Agency regulations in their Notice of Proposed Rulemaking, e.g., speed limitations, for Supersonic transport noise certification and the regulations from Noise Chapters of the Annex 16 from the International Civil Aviation Organization in order to evaluate the resulting levels as a function of the flight procedure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Noise)

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29 pages, 2162 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Low-Noise Design of Medium-Range Aircraft for Energy Efficient Aviation

by Vincent Domogalla, Lothar Bertsch, Martin Plohr, Eike Stumpf and Zoltán S. Spakovszky

Aerospace 2022, 9(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9010003 - 22 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3925

Abstract

Promising low-noise aircraft architectures have been identified over the last few years at DLR. A set of DLR aircraft concepts was selected for further assessment in the context of sustainable and energy-efficient aviation and was established at the TU Braunschweig in 2019, the Cluster of Excellence for Sustainable and Energy-Efficient Aviation (SE²A). Specific Top-Level aircraft requirements were defined by the cluster and the selected DLR aircraft designs were improved with focus on aircraft noise, emissions, and contrail generation. The presented paper specifically addresses the reduction of aviation noise with focus on noise shielding and modifications to the flight performance. This article presents the state of the art of the simulation process at DLR and demonstrates that the novel aircraft concepts can reduce the noise impact by up to 50% in terms of sound exposure level isocontour area while reducing the fuel burn by 6%, respective to a conventional aircraft for the same mission. The study shows that a tube-wing architecture with a top-mounted, forward-swept wing and low fan pressure ratio propulsors installed above the fuselage at the wing junction can yield significant noise shielding at improved low-speed performance and reduce critical fuel burn and emissions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Noise)

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16 pages, 4583 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of the Aircraft Noise Calculation Programs sonAIR, FLULA2 and AEDT with Noise Measurements of Single Flights

by Jonas Meister, Stefan Schalcher, Jean-Marc Wunderli, David Jäger, Christoph Zellmann and Beat Schäffer

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 388; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120388 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3862

Abstract

As aircraft noise affects large areas around airports, noise exposure calculations need to be highly accurate. In this study, we compare noise exposure measurements with calculations of several thousand single flights at Zurich and Geneva airports, Switzerland, of three aircraft noise calculation programs: sonAIR, a next-generation aircraft noise calculation program, and the two current best-practice programs FLULA2 and AEDT. For one part of the flights, we had access to flight data recorder (FDR) data, which contain flight configuration information that sonAIR can account for. For the other part, only radar data without flight configuration information were available. Overall, all three programs show good results, with mean differences between calculations and measurements smaller than ±0.5 dB in the close range of the airports. sonAIR performs clearly better than the two best-practice programs if FDR data are available. However, in situations without FDR data (reduced set of input data), sonAIR cannot exploit its full potential and performs similarly well as FLULA2 and AEDT. In conclusion, all three programs are well suited to determine averaged noise metrics resulting from complex scenarios consisting of many flights (e.g., yearly air operations), while sonAIR is additionally capable to highly accurately reproduce single flights in greater detail. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Noise)

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19 pages, 2711 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Investigation of a Rectangular Jet Exhausting over a Flat Plate with Periodic Surface Deformations at the Trailing Edge

by Colby Niles Horner, Adrian Sescu, Mohammed Afsar and Eric Collins

Aerospace 2021, 8(11), 314; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8110314 - 24 Oct 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2105

Abstract

Multiple competing factors are forcing aircraft designers to reconsider the underwing engine pod configuration typically seen on most modern commercial aircraft. One notable concern is increasing environmental regulations on noise emitted by aircraft. In an attempt to satisfy these constraints while maintaining or improving vehicle performance, engineers have been experimenting with some innovative aircraft designs which place the engines above the wings or embedded in the fuselage. In one configuration, a blended wing concept vehicle utilizes rectangular jet exhaust ports exiting from above the wing ahead of the trailing edge. While intuitively one would think that this design would reduce the noise levels transmitted to the ground due to the shielding provided by the wing, experimental studies have shown that this design can actually increase noise levels due to interactions of the jet exhaust with the aft wing surface and flat trailing edge. In this work, we take another look at this rectangular exhaust port configuration with some notional modifications to the geometry of the trailing edge to determine if the emitted noise levels due to jet interactions can be reduced with respect to a baseline configuration. We consider various horizontal and vertical offsets of the jet exit with respect to a flat plate standing in for the aft wing surface. We then introduce a series of sinusoidal deformations to the trailing edge of the plate of varying amplitude and wave number. Our results show that the emitted sound levels due to the jet–surface interactions can be significantly altered by the proposed geometry modifications. While sound levels remained fairly consistent over many configurations, there were some that showed both increased and decreased sound levels in specific directions. We present results here for the simulated configurations which showed the greatest decrease in overall sound levels with respect to the baseline. These results provide strong indications that such geometry modifications can potentially be tailored to optimize for further reductions in sound levels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Noise)

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41 pages, 25737 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prediction of Aircraft Noise Impact with Application to Hong Kong International Airport

by Chunhui Wu and Stephane Redonnet

Aerospace 2021, 8(9), 264; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8090264 - 15 Sep 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4513

Abstract

As part of a collective research effort towards greener aviation, the present study focuses on the noise impact of aircraft operations around major airports. To this end, an aircraft noise prediction platform is developed, which relies on state-of-the-art functionalities as well as more specific, innovative features. Originally built upon the Aircraft Noise and Performance (ANP) database and its Noise–Power–Distance (NPD) table, the method is further refined to alleviate most of their inherent limitations (e.g., standardized and simplified aircraft noise scenarios). The resulting aircraft noise prediction platform is validated against benchmark cases of increasing complexity, being then applied to real-life situations involving actual aircraft operations around Hong Kong International Airport (HKIA). Specific comparative analyses are conducted, which allow highlighting the variability of the noise impact by aircraft, depending on their type (A330, B777) and/or operational conditions (power settings, meteorological conditions, routes, banks, etc.). The study delivers insightful outcomes, whether phenomenological (aircraft noise impact) or methodological (aircraft noise prediction). As a by-product, it illustrates how noise prediction methods/platforms such as the present one may help in guiding the further expansion of airport operations and/or infrastructures (as is currently the case with HKIA). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Noise)

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23 pages, 951 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Noise Certification Regulations within Conceptual Aircraft Design

by Michel Nöding and Lothar Bertsch

Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080210 - 3 Aug 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3742

Abstract

ICAO Annex 16 regulations are used to certify the acoustic performance of subsonic transport aircraft. Each aircraft is classified according to the measured EPNL levels at specific certification locations along the approach and departure. By simulating this certification process, it becomes possible to identify all relevant parameters and assess promising measures to reduce the noise certification levels in compliance with the underlying ICAO regulations, i.e., allowable operating conditions of the aircraft. Furthermore, simulation is the only way to enable an assessment of novel technology and non-existing vehicle concepts, which is the main motivation behind the presented research activities. Consequently, the ICAO Annex 16 regulations are integrated into an existing noise simulation framework at DLR, and the virtual noise certification of novel aircraft concepts is realized at the conceptual design phase. The predicted certification levels can be directly selected as design objectives in order to realize an advantageous ICAO noise category for a new aircraft design, i.e., simultaneously accounting for the design and the resulting flight performance. A detailed assessment and identification of operational limits and allowable flight procedures for each conceptual aircraft design under consideration is enabled. Sensitivity studies can be performed for the relevant input parameters that influence the predicted noise certification levels. Specific noise sources with a dominating impact on the certification noise levels can be identified, and promising additional low-noise measures can be applied within the conceptual design phase. The overall simulation process is applied to existing vehicles in order to assess the validity of the simulation resultsfcompared to published data. Thereafter, the process is applied to some DLR low-noise aircraft concepts to evaluate their noise certification levels. These results can then be compared to other standard noise metrics that are typically applied in order to describe aircraft noise, e.g., SEL isocontour areas. It can be demonstrated that certain technologies can significantly reduce the noise impact along most of an approach or departure flight track but have only a limited influence on the noise certification levels and vice versa. Finally, an outlook of the ongoing developments is provided, in order to apply the new simulation process to supersonic aircraft. Newly proposed regulations for such concepts are implemented into the process in order to evaluate these new regulations and enable direct comparison with existing regulations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Noise)

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