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Energy Implications of Thermal Comfort in Buildings considering Climate Change

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Energy Science and Technology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 April 2024) | Viewed by 28020

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Dr. Daniel Sánchez-García

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Guest Editor

Department of Mechanical Engineering and Industrial Design, University of Cádiz, 11003 Cádiz, Spain
Interests: thermal comfort; building energy simulation; climate change
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. David Bienvenido Huertas

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Guest Editor

Department of Building Construction, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
Interests: energy efficiency in building; thermal comfort; building automation; climate change
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

To meet the 2050 decarbonization targets, energy savings in buildings must be accomplished. Buildings must increase their energy efficiency to do this in order to guarantee user comfort in terms of temperature as well as minimizing environmental effects. To determine the best energy-saving tactics to use and to lessen the effects of climate change, multidisciplinary assessments of the link between energy saving and thermal comfort need to be conducted.

This Special Issue's goal is to examine the value of thermal comfort and energy efficiency in the built environment. This Special Issue's intended scope covers all pertinent techniques, with an emphasis on:

Adaptive thermal comfort
PMV-based thermal comfort
Natural ventilation
Mixed-mode
HVAC systems
Energy saving measures
Climate change
Building energy simulations

Dr. Daniel Sánchez-García
Dr. David Bienvenido Huertas
Guest Editors

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Keywords

building thermal comfort
energy savings in buildings
climate change

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Energy Implications of Thermal Comfort in Buildings considering Climate Change, Second Edition in Applied Sciences (2 articles)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

2 pages, 211 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Energy Implications of Thermal Comfort in Buildings Considering Climate Change

by Daniel Sánchez-García and David Bienvenido-Huertas

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(19), 10708; https://doi.org/10.3390/app131910708 - 26 Sep 2023

Viewed by 1257

Abstract

Extreme weather events and rising global temperatures are signs of the urgent threat that climate change poses to our planet [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Implications of Thermal Comfort in Buildings considering Climate Change)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

20 pages, 3843 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Intersection of Architectural Conservation and Energy Efficiency: A Case Study of Romanian Heritage Buildings

by Simona Elena Șerban, Tiberiu Catalina, Razvan Popescu and Lelia Popescu

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(11), 4835; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14114835 - 3 Jun 2024

Viewed by 759

Abstract

In Europe, it is estimated that 14% of existing buildings were built before 1919, whereas 26% were built before 1945. In Romania, about 31% of the buildings date from before 1961, contributing to the current stock of old buildings with historic and architectural value in the country. This paper illustrates the current state of buildings with historic and architectural value in Romania, alongside a case study of a representative administrative building in Câmpulung, Romania. The analysis of the Town Hall building in Câmpulung, Romania, demonstrates that potential energy savings of up to 47.53% can be achieved by implementing interventions such as upgrading windows, insulating the attic, and installing photovoltaic panels. The highest energy reduction is obtained by replacing the window glass with a value of 18.16% with attic insulation with a value of 16.1%. This paper also presents indoor measurements of temperature and humidity in different offices positioned in the north and the south. The study conducted on the south façade office revealed consistent temperatures ranging from 21.7 °C to 24.4 °C, with an average of 23.31 °C. However, the humidity levels fluctuated considerably, ranging from 17.1% to 39.1%, with an average of 26.89%. The sun-exposed section of the building saw relatively stable temperature conditions, but the varying humidity levels could have a detrimental impact on the quality of the indoor atmosphere and potentially decrease the effectiveness of the workforce. By contrast, the north façade office exhibited lower and more fluctuating temperatures, ranging from 19.8 °C to 23.6 °C, with an average of 21.74 °C. Additionally, it had higher and more stable humidity levels, ranging between 19.5% and 41.7%, with an average of 29.83%. A thermographic analysis was performed on the north façade of the Câmpulung Town Hall, utilizing thermal imaging technology to detect areas of heat loss, and thus identifying the energy inefficiency problems of the building’s exterior. The investigation found notable variations in temperature, especially around the windows, where temperatures could be as high as 14.1 °C, highlighting the insufficiency of the building’s antiquated timber-framed windows in preventing energy loss. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Implications of Thermal Comfort in Buildings considering Climate Change)

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24 pages, 6063 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Validation of Dynamic Natural Ventilation Protocols for Optimal Indoor Air Quality and Thermal Adaptive Comfort during the Winter Season in Subtropical-Climate School Buildings

by Antonio Sánchez Cordero, Sergio Gómez Melgar and José Manuel Andújar Márquez

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(11), 4651; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14114651 - 28 May 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1471

Abstract

The need for energy-efficient buildings must be based on strong effective passive-design techniques, which coordinate indoor air quality and thermal comfort. This research describes the principles, simulation, implementation, and monitoring of two different natural cross-ventilation algorithm scenarios applied to a school-building case study affected by a subtropical climate during the winter season. These ventilation protocols, the steady and dynamic versions, can control the carbon dioxide concentration and actuate the window openings according to pre-defined window-to-wall ratios. The implementation of the monitoring process during three non-consecutive days in the winter of 2021 validates the opening strategy to maintain carbon dioxide below 800 ppm, described by the protocol Hygiene Measures Against COVID-19, and the temperature within the comfort ranges suggested by the adaptive UNE-EN 16798. The study shows that a steady opening of 2.16% window-to-wall equivalent ratio can be enough to maintain the requested comfort and carbon dioxide conditions. The use of the dynamic window ratios, from 0.23% to 2.16%, modified according to the measured carbon dioxide concentration, can partially maintain the carbon dioxide below the required limits for ASHRAE 62.1, Hygiene Measures Against COVID-19 and UNE-EN 16798 between 48.28% to 74.14% of the time. However, the carbon dioxide limit proposed by RITE, 500 ppm, is only achieved for 15.52% of the time, which demonstrates the inadequacy of the natural ventilation to fulfil the standard. Further improvements in the dynamic control of the openings in these buildings could lead to lower carbon dioxide concentrations while maintaining the thermal comfort in mild winter climates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Implications of Thermal Comfort in Buildings considering Climate Change)

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23 pages, 5523 KiB

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Experimental Studies and Performance Characteristics Analysis of a Variable-Volume Heat Pump in a Ventilation System

by Anton Frik, Juozas Bielskus, Rasa Džiugaitė-Tumėnienė and Violeta Motuzienė

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(9), 3933; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14093933 - 5 May 2024

Viewed by 1485

Abstract

Air-to-air heat pumps are used in today’s ventilation systems increasingly often as they provide heating and cooling for buildings. The energy transformation modes of these units are subject to constant change due to the varying outdoor air state, including temperature and humidity. When choosing how to operate and control energy transformers, it is important to be able to adapt effectively to the changing outside air conditions. Nowadays, modern commercial heat pumps offer two levels of control flexibility: a compressor with a variable speed and an electronic expansion valve. This combination of control elements has boosted the seasonal energy efficiency of heat pumps. For a long time, cycle control possibilities have been dominated by electronic controls. The authors of this paper aim to present an additional element to the traditional heat pump controls, which provides a third level of control over the cycle. To achieve the objective, experimental investigations of a heat pump integrated into a ventilation unit have been carried out under real-life conditions. The experiments involved varying the operating modes of the unit by adjusting the compressor speed, the position of the expansion valve, and the volume of the system loop. The study examined the performance characteristics of the heat pump and found that the performance of a variable-volume heat pump is comparable to that of a conventionally operated typical constant-volume heat pump system. In addition, the study found that by adding a third level of volume control to the active heating circuit, in combination with conventional controls, the heat pump’s heat output range could be extended by 69.62%. The study determined the variation of the heat pump cycle in the p-h diagram with the variation of the loop volume. The benefits and drawbacks of a heat pump with a variable-volume loop are discussed in this study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Implications of Thermal Comfort in Buildings considering Climate Change)

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20 pages, 9682 KiB

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Scheme Design and Energy-Saving Optimization of Cold and Heat Energy Supply System for Substation Main Control Building in Cold Area

by Ying Wang, Xu Jin, Jiapeng Zhang, Cong Zeng, Xiuyun Gao, Lei Zhao and Shuai Sha

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(4), 1562; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14041562 - 15 Feb 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1258

Abstract

In the context of global climate change, the implementation of building energy conservation and carbon reduction, as well as the realization of zero-energy buildings, is a key measure to cope with climate change and resource depletion. A substation is an indispensable building in the process of urbanization construction. However, in existing cold areas, the heating form of substations generally adopts electric heating, which consumes a large amount of energy. This paper optimizes the existing HVAC form of substations through the rational utilization of surrounding environmental resources and puts forward reasonable building energy-saving and carbon-reduction methods. It demonstrates the feasibility of combining solar photovoltaic power generation systems, air source heat pumps, and natural ventilation to optimize energy savings and carbon reduction in the main control building of a substation in a cold area. The computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method is used to demonstrate the feasibility of natural ventilation during the summer and transition seasons. The data indicate that the installation of a solar photovoltaic power generation system results in an average annual power generation of 18.75 MWh. Additionally, using an air source heat pump can save 44.5% of electricity compared to electric heating. When both a solar photovoltaic power generation system and an air source heat pump are used to provide a building with cold and heat sources, the annual emissions of CO₂ can be reduced by 4.90 tons compared to a traditional electric heating system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Implications of Thermal Comfort in Buildings considering Climate Change)

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13 pages, 2605 KiB

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Active Strategies Based on Parametric Design for Applying Shading Structures

by Ho-Soon Choi

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(3), 974; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14030974 - 23 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1324

Abstract

This study aimed to increase the energy independence of buildings by utilizing solar energy to produce renewable energy. The subject of this study was a shading structure installed in an outdoor space to provide solar energy. Solar panels were applied to the shaded structures to generate energy actively. The solar panels were designed to be moved according to the optimal tilt angle each month to produce the optimal amount of renewable energy. The architectural design of the shading structure and the energy simulation of the solar panels were conducted using a parametric design. The results of the energy simulation showed the generation of 31,570 kWh· year⁻¹ of renewable energy. This amount of energy is 10% higher than that produced by fixed solar panels. Thus, the moving solar panel system developed in this study not only increases the energy independence of buildings, but also has the advantage of higher renewable energy production compared with fixed solar panels. Additionally, various types of shading structures can be designed depending on the combination of solar panel modules; in particular, moving solar panels have the potential to facilitate ecofriendly designs when applied to the exterior of buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Implications of Thermal Comfort in Buildings considering Climate Change)

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21 pages, 5954 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Natural Ventilation for Cooling Energy Saving: Typical Case of Public Building Design Optimization in Guangzhou, China

by Menglong Zhang, Wenyang Han, Yufei He, Jianwu Xiong and Yin Zhang

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(2), 610; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14020610 - 10 Jan 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3743

Abstract

Heating ventilation and air conditioning systems account for over one-third of building energy usage, especially for public buildings, due to large indoor heat sources and high ventilation and thermal comfort requirements compared to residential buildings. Natural ventilation shows high application potential in public buildings because of its highly efficient ventilation effect and energy-saving potential for indoor heat dissipation. In this paper, a building design is proposed for a science museum with atrium-centered natural ventilation consideration. The floor layout, building orientation, and internal structure are optimized to make full use of natural ventilation for space cooling under local climatic conditions. The natural ventilation model is established through computational fluid dynamics (CFD) for airflow evaluation under indoor and outdoor pressure differences. The preliminary results show that such an atrium-centered architectural design could facilitate an average air exchange rate over 2 h⁻¹ via the natural ventilation effect. Moreover, indoor thermal environment simulation results indicate that the exhaust air temperature can be about 5 °C higher than the indoor air mean temperature during the daytime, resulting in about 41.2% air conditioning energy saving ratio due to the free cooling effect of natural ventilation. This work can provide guidance and references for natural ventilation optimization design in public buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Implications of Thermal Comfort in Buildings considering Climate Change)

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23 pages, 5810 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of the Impact of Indoor Environmental Quality in Romanian Schools through an Extensive Experimental Campaign

by Tiberiu Catalina, Andrei Damian and Andreea Vartires

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(1), 234; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14010234 - 27 Dec 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1213

Abstract

Decentralized ventilation systems in schools are becoming more important due to the focus on indoor air quality and energy economy. The research aims to explore how these technologies affect classroom air quality, thermal comfort, and noise. The study examined four decentralized ventilation systems in a real-world school using field measurements and data analysis. This included measuring the CO₂, temperature, noise, and thermal comfort using the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) index. All systems greatly improved the air quality, keeping CO₂ levels within suggested limits. They failed to control indoor humidity, often lowering it to below optimal levels. Noise surpassed the 35 dB(A) criteria at maximum operation but was acceptable at lower airflows. Noise and air drafts did not bother residents. The study found that decentralized ventilation systems improve air quality and are easy to adapt to, although they need humidity control and noise management at higher operational levels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Implications of Thermal Comfort in Buildings considering Climate Change)

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36 pages, 1763 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Extending the IFC-Based bim2sim Framework to Improve the Accessibility of Thermal Comfort Analysis Considering Future Climate Scenarios

by Veronika Elisabeth Richter, Marc Syndicus, Jérôme Frisch and Christoph van Treeck

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(22), 12478; https://doi.org/10.3390/app132212478 - 18 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1342

Abstract

Future weather scenarios significantly affect indoor thermal comfort, influencing people’s well-being and productivity at work. Thus, future weather scenarios should be considered in the design phase to improve a building’s climate change resilience for new constructions as well as renovations in building stock. As thermal comfort is highly influenced by internal and external thermal loads resulting from weather conditions and building usage, only a dynamic building performance simulation (BPS) can predict the boundary conditions for a thermal comfort analysis during the design stage. As the model setup for a BPS requires detailed information about building geometry, materials, and usage, recent research activities have tried to derive the required simulation models from the open BIM (Building Information Modeling) Standard IFC (Industry Foundation Classes). However, even if IFC data are available, they are often faulty or incomplete. We propose a template-based enrichment of the BPS models that assists with imputing missing data based on archetypal usage of thermal zones. These templates are available for standardized enrichment of BPS models but do not include the required parameters for thermal comfort analysis. This study presents an approach for IFC-based thermal comfort analysis and a set of zone-usage-based templates to enrich thermal comfort input parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Implications of Thermal Comfort in Buildings considering Climate Change)

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24 pages, 5033 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving Thermo-Energetic Consumption of Medical Center in Mexican Hot–Humid Climate Region: Case Study of San Francisco de Campeche, Mexico

by Oscar May Tzuc, Gerardo Peña López, Mauricio Huchin Miss, Juan Edgar Andrade Durán, Jorge J. Chan González, Francisco Lezama Zárraga and Mario Jiménez Torres

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(22), 12444; https://doi.org/10.3390/app132212444 - 17 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1289

Abstract

An assessment of the thermal refurbishment of an outpatient medical center in a tropical location, such as the City of San Francisco de Campeche, was presented with the aim to diminish its energy consumption. A year-long energy audit of the facility was conducted to formulate and validate a numerical simulation model while scrutinizing enhancement strategies. The examined improvement alternatives encompass passive adjustments to the roof (utilizing insulating materials, applying reflective coatings, and installing a green roof), modifications to active systems incorporating inverter technology, and alterations to the walls via reflective paint. The outcomes of the simulated enhancement scenarios were assessed utilizing energy, environmental, and economic metrics: key performance index (KPI), equivalent CO₂ emission index (CEI), and net savings (NS). These results were subsequently juxtaposed against TOPSIS decision-making algorithms to ascertain the alternative that optimally balances the three options. It was identified that using reflective paint on the roof provides the best energy benefits and contributes to mitigating emissions from electricity use. Furthermore, combining this passive technology with the integration of inverter air conditioning systems offers the best economic return at the end of 15 years. For its part, the TOPSIS method indicated that by prioritizing the financial aspect, the reflective coating on the roof combined with inverter air conditioning is enough. However, adding a wall with insulating paint brings environmental and energy benefits. The results of this work serve as a starting point for the analysis of other post-occupied buildings in the region and others under tropical climatic conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Implications of Thermal Comfort in Buildings considering Climate Change)

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14 pages, 4325 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Building Energy Savings by Developing Complex Smart Windows and Their Controllers

by Seong-Ki Hong, Sang-Ho Choi and Su-Gwang Jeong

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(17), 9647; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13179647 - 25 Aug 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1204

Abstract

The interest in zero-energy buildings has increased in Korea recently. Following the significant increases in cooling and lighting energy consumption in offices, various studies have been conducted to implement energy-saving measures. The purpose of this study is to reduce lighting and cooling energy consumption in the summer through the dimming control of a complex smart window system. To achieve this, the optimal dimming control algorithm has been derived and applied in simulations to analyze the energy consumption for lighting and cooling. A smart window incorporates suspended particle display glass that actively responds to changes in indoor and outdoor environments and controls light transmittance. It also includes a light-guiding glass that can actively control solar reflectance. Simulations of office buildings were conducted to develop optimal control algorithms and controllers based on solar radiation. Subsequently, we installed this complex smart window in a test room along with the developed control algorithm and controller, which responded to the amount of insolation and time. To ensure the accuracy of the experiment, we constructed separate test and reference rooms. The experimental results obtained under the same conditions showed a reduction of approximately 36.9% in cooling energy consumption in the test room compared with the reference room and a 54.5% reduction in lighting energy consumption. Furthermore, based on additional simulations and experiments, we confirmed that the application of complex smart window systems in office buildings could reduce considerably the energy consumption for cooling and lighting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Implications of Thermal Comfort in Buildings considering Climate Change)

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Review

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25 pages, 2144 KiB

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The Green Cooling Factor: Eco-Innovative Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning Solutions in Building Design

by Bashar Mahmood Ali and Mehmet Akkaş

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(1), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14010195 - 25 Dec 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 10378

Abstract

This research investigates the compatibility of conventional air conditioning with the principles of green building, highlighting the need for systems that enhance indoor comfort while aligning with environmental sustainability. Though proficient in regulating indoor temperatures, conventional cooling systems encounter several issues when incorporated into green buildings. These include energy waste, high running costs, and misalignment with eco-friendly practices, which may also lead to detrimental environmental effects and potentially reduce occupant comfort, particularly in retrofit situations. Given the emphasis on sustainability and energy conservation in green buildings, there is a pressing demand for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) solutions that support these goals. This study emphasises the critical need to reconsider traditional HVAC strategies in the face of green building advances. It advocates for the adoption of innovative HVAC technologies designed for eco-efficiency and enhanced comfort. These technologies should integrate seamlessly with sustainable construction, use greener refrigerants, and uphold environmental integrity, driving progress towards a sustainable and occupant-friendly built environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Implications of Thermal Comfort in Buildings considering Climate Change)

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