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Resistance Training: Acute Responses, Short and Long-Term Adaptations in Athletic Performance and Health

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Applied Biosciences and Bioengineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 April 2026 | Viewed by 3600

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Dr. Nikolaos Zaras

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Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, School of Physical Education, Sport Science and Occupational Therapy, Democritus University of Thrace, GR-69100 Komotini, Greece
Interests: strength and conditioning; athletic performance; sports science; exercise science; resistance training; muscle physiology; exercise physiology; exercise performance; exercise testing; sport physiology; sports biomechanics; Olympic weightlifting
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Dr. Spyridon Methenitis

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Sports Performance Laboratory, School of Physical Education and Sports Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 57668 Athens, Greece
Interests: strength & conditioning; exercise physiology; biochemistry of exercise; muscle morphology; muscle metabolism; muscle damage; neuromuscular system; training; training adaptations; performance; body functionality; sports nutrition
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Resistance training has repeatedly been proven to be key to increasing performance in almost all team and individual sports, as well as a fundamental factor for enhancing human health. Depending on the aim of training, coaches often design resistance training programs to enhance muscle endurance, hypertrophy, maximum strength, power, speed and various health-related parameters using periodized training plans. According to the executed resistance training programs, specific adaptations in neural activation, muscle mass, muscle morphology, and fiber-type composition, as well as physiological–metabolic–mechanical properties of muscle fibers, occur, which eventually improves athletic performance, body functionality, metabolism and health status. Various forms of resistance training, including resistance machines, free weights, weightlifting derivatives, functional exercises on stable or unstable surfaces, and resistance training methods, such as ballistic-power training, velocity-based training, complex compound training and traditional resistance training, are used every day by sports scientist and coaches to increase athletic performance, as well as to help athletes and trainees to recover from injuries and improve neuromuscular disorders/conditions and cardio-metabolic health conditions. Therefore, this special issue will collect manuscripts that investigate the effects of acute responses and short-/long term adaptations following resistance training programs on athletic performance and human health. We welcome different types of manuscript submissions, including original research articles, reviews, systematic reviews and meta-analyses, that provide novel and application-based information outcomes on these topics.

Dr. Nikolaos Zaras
Dr. Spyridon Methenitis
Guest Editors

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Keywords

resistance training
functionality and health
acute/short-/long-term training interventions
sports performance
body composition
neuromuscular adaptations
muscle architecture characteristics
muscle fiber type composition
non-communicable chronic diseases
elderly and sedentary individuals

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 1156 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Series of Acute Psychological Priming Interventions Assessing Changes in Hormonal and Physical Performance Measures During Resistance Training

by James Collins, Chris Bishop, Abbie Spiegelhalter, Laura Wilson, Frank Hills and Anthony Turner

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(21), 11538; https://doi.org/10.3390/app152111538 - 29 Oct 2025

Viewed by 159

Abstract

Psychological “priming” strategies such as music, self-talk, imagery, and audience effects are commonly used by athletes, yet their acute influence on resistance training performance and underlying endocrine responses is unclear. We conducted three crossover studies in collegiate adults (n = 64) examining self-selected music (SSM), motivational self-talk with imagery (MSTI) or without (MST), and observation either in-person (OE) or via social media (SM) compared with control (CON). Performance tests included a 3-repetition maximum (3RM) back squat, four sets of a 4RM bench press, and a 65% 1RM back squat to failure. Salivary testosterone (T) and cortisol (C) concentrations were assessed to explore potential mechanisms. Across studies, no condition yielded statistically significant differences versus CON (p > 0.05); however, small-to-moderate effect sizes suggested practically relevant improvements. For example, 3RM back squat load increased under SSM (g = 0.26) and MSTI (g = 0.22), while SM observation improved repetitions to failure (g = 0.33) and produced a moderate rise in T (g = 0.79). Several priming strategies also favourably altered the T:C ratio. These findings suggest that although group-level changes were subtle, individualized responses may allow athletes to benefit from simple, free interventions that could accumulate into meaningful performance gains when applied repeatedly in training. Future work with larger samples and long-term training designs is warranted to confirm these effects and whether changes in T and C are modulating the priming response. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resistance Training: Acute Responses, Short and Long-Term Adaptations in Athletic Performance and Health)

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13 pages, 1076 KB

Open AccessArticle

Eccentric Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage Is Independent of Limb Dominance in Young Women

by Natalia Prokopiou, Dimitris Mandalidis, Gerasimos Terzis and Vassilis Paschalis

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(19), 10466; https://doi.org/10.3390/app151910466 - 26 Sep 2025

Viewed by 1335

Abstract

Unaccustomed eccentric exercise is well established to induce exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD), characterized by transient strength loss, delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), reduced range of motion, and proprioceptive disturbances. While limb dominance has been proposed as a potential modulator of susceptibility to EIMD, evidence remains inconclusive. This exploratory study aimed to compare alterations in muscle damage indices between dominant and non-dominant knee extensors 48 h after eccentric isokinetic exercise. Eighteen physically active young women (23 ± 2 years) completed two eccentric exercise sessions (5 × 15 maximal contractions at 60°/s), one per limb, with sessions separated by 24–30 days. For all participants, testing was conducted during the early follicular phase. Muscle strength (isometric and eccentric peak torque), DOMS (palpation and pain pressure threshold), range of motion, fatigue index, and position sense were assessed pre- and 48 h post-exercise. Significant reductions in isometric and eccentric peak torque, increased DOMS, impaired position sense, and altered fatigue index were observed 48 h post-exercise in the exercised limb (p < 0.001), with no differences between dominant and non-dominant limbs across all indices. These findings demonstrate that limb dominance does not influence the magnitude of EIMD in knee extensors of young women. Practical implications include equal consideration of both limbs in eccentric training, rehabilitation, and injury prevention programs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resistance Training: Acute Responses, Short and Long-Term Adaptations in Athletic Performance and Health)

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18 pages, 1481 KB

Open AccessArticle

Pre- and Post-Test Evaluation of a Periodized Off-Season Training Program in Professional Footballers

by Mert Isbilir, Andreas Stafylidis, Yiannis Michailidis, Athanasios Mandroukas, Georgios Antoniou, Eleni Semaltianou, Vasilios Mittas, Ioannis Ispirlidis and Thomas I. Metaxas

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(19), 10354; https://doi.org/10.3390/app151910354 - 24 Sep 2025

Viewed by 545

Abstract

This study examined the physiological and performance adaptations of association football (soccer) players during a six-week transitional (off-season) period following the competitive season through a remotely supervised, periodized training program. Fifteen male players (19.57 ± 1.14 years; training experience: 13.60 ± 1.81 years) from the Greek Super League 2 completed pre- and post-intervention laboratory assessments, including anthropometry, cardiopulmonary function, isokinetic strength, and jump performance. The program integrated high-intensity interval training, aerobic conditioning, and individualized resistance training, adjusted according to test results. Anthropometric parameters remained stable. Maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max) increased significantly by 2.8% (56.31 ± 3.87 vs. 57.91 ± 3.02 mL/kg/min), while anaerobic threshold time and velocity declined by 6.2% (472.87 ± 35.06 vs. 443.33 ± 24.69 sec) and anaerobic threshold velocity fell by 6.1% (15.97 ± 1.17 vs. 15.00 ± 0.91 km/h), indicating a partial preservation of aerobic capacity but reductions in submaximal endurance. Isokinetic strength of the quadriceps and hamstrings was maintained across angular velocities, but squat jump height decreased significantly by 4.3% (p = 0.033), suggesting a loss of concentric-only explosive power despite stable countermovement jump performance. These findings indicate that targeted off-season training can maintain overall physical readiness, body composition, and VO₂max, but may require additional endurance and concentric power elements to preserve all performance qualities essential for the competitive season. Overall, the program effectively preserved most performance variables with only minor decrements, representing a favorable outcome for the off-season; however, if greater asymmetries, deficits, or other training targets are identified, more specific adjustments to training intensities, such as the inclusion of additional endurance and concentric-only power elements, may be required to achieve significant improvements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resistance Training: Acute Responses, Short and Long-Term Adaptations in Athletic Performance and Health)

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14 pages, 1284 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ischemic Preconditioning (IPC) Enhances the Accuracy and Stability of Proprioception

by Junqi Wu, Peng Zhang, Yecheng Zhang, Yuying Su, Yu Shi and Chunlei Li

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(14), 7941; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15147941 - 16 Jul 2025

Viewed by 730

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the differences in proprioceptive changes at different time points (Pre vs. Post vs. 90 min vs. 24 h) before and after ischemic preconditioning. It followed a within-subject, self-controlled design, and a total of 21 trained male participants were assessed using two-point discrimination threshold tests on thigh and knee joint position sense testing. The results demonstrated that ischemic preconditioning effectively improved proprioceptive accuracy (two-point discrimination, right lower limb, p < 0.001; two-point discrimination, left lower limb, p < 0.001; knee position sense, right lower limb, p = 0.001; knee position sense, left lower limb, p = 0.014) and stability (two-point discrimination, right lower limb, p < 0.001; two-point discrimination, left lower limb, p = 0.002; knee position sense, right lower limb, p < 0.001; knee position sense, left lower limb, p = 0.003), with the optimal time point for enhancement identified at 90 min. This research suggests administering IPC 90 min before warm-up or competition to enhance athletic performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resistance Training: Acute Responses, Short and Long-Term Adaptations in Athletic Performance and Health)

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10 pages, 1218 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Inverted Swallow in Artistic Gymnastics and Its Related Preconditioning Strengthening Exercises: Electromyographic Analysis, Muscle Synergies and Training Implications

by Giuseppe Rosaci, Sandro Bartolomei, Silvia Fantozzi and Christoph Schärer

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(13), 7537; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15137537 - 4 Jul 2025

Viewed by 582

Abstract

The Inverted Swallow (IS) is a rare isometric upper-body skill in artistic gymnastics. Athletes use Preconditioning Strengthening Exercises (PSEs) to develop the strength necessary to hold the IS at competition rings. However, the specific muscle excitation and synergies typical of the IS and its PSEs remain unexplored. Thus, this study analyzed muscle excitations and synergies during the IS and its five common PSEs. Muscle excitation was recorded from the pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi, triceps brachii, infraspinatus, trapezius, serratus anterior, biceps brachii and posterior deltoid muscles in six elite calisthenics athletes (age: 24.5 ± 3.0 years; height: 168.6 ± 5.8 cm; body mass: 65.0 ± 4.7 kg). Non-Negative Matrix Factorization was used to extract synergies. The results showed a predominant role of the posterior deltoid and triceps brachii during the IS. Significant differences were observed in the muscle excitation of the triceps brachii between the IS and its PSEs (p ≤ 0.001; W = 0.765), and in the posterior deltoid (p = 0.002; W = 0.629). Muscle synergy patterns also differed in simultaneous muscle activation between the IS and its PSEs. These findings provide the first detailed evidence of the characteristics of the IS element, providing insights for optimizing strength training and gymnastics performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resistance Training: Acute Responses, Short and Long-Term Adaptations in Athletic Performance and Health)

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