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Exercise, Fitness, Human Performance and Health: 2nd Edition

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Applied Biosciences and Bioengineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 May 2025 | Viewed by 7628

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Prof. Dr. Marios Hadjicharalambous

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Department of Life Sciences, School of Life and Health Sciences, University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus
Interests: exercise physiology; sports performance; sports nutrition; exercise & health; fitness testing
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Dr. Nikolaos Zaras

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Sports Science Program, School of Life and Health Sciences, University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus
Interests: athletic performance; sports science; resistance training; sports physiology; Olympic weightlifting; track & field; strength-power training; exercise & health
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Irrespective of the age, gender and initial fitness level of each individual, specific strength and conditioning exercises are essential elements to incorporate in a training program for fitness development either for improving human sports performance or for maintaining and securing human health.

This Special Issue of Applied Sciences, entitled “Exercise, Fitness, Human Performance and Health: 2nd Edition”, will be dedicated to new perspectives in the aforementioned research topic. We intend to attract high-quality experimental and review manuscripts that will examine/discuss the metabolic, cardiorespiratory, muscular/neuromuscular, immune, hormonal and myokine effects of acute and/or chronic strength and conditioning training on human performance and on health for both genders and at all fitness levels and age groups.

We would like to welcome various types of manuscript submissions, including original experimental/research (cross-sectional, intervention studies) articles, systematic reviews and meta-analyses.

Potential themes and sub-topics may include, but are not limited to, the effect of various types of strength/resistance (i.e., concentric, plyometric, isometric), cardiorespiratory (anaerobic: HIIT, SIT and aerobic) and/or concurrent strength and endurance training on fitness development attempting to maximize human sports performance and promote/secure human health.

We are looking forward to receiving your valuable manuscripts and collaborating with you.

Prof. Dr. Marios Hadjicharalambous
Dr. Nikolaos Zaras
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Applied Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

strength and conditioning
fitness development
biological responses
sports performance
human health

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Exercise, Fitness, Human Performance and Health in Applied Sciences (18 articles)

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Research

18 pages, 1176 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Effects of a High-Intensity Interval Training Protocol on Pain Sensitivity and Inflammatory Markers in Persons with Chronic Nonspecific Low Back Pain: A Controlled Clinical Trial

by Jonas Verbrugghe, Sim Klaps, Kenneth Verboven, Timo Meus, Kristof Kempeneers, Kristian Kjaer-Staal Petersen and Annick Timmermans

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(6), 2918; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15062918 - 7 Mar 2025

Viewed by 359

Abstract

Chronic nonspecific low back pain (CNSLBP) might be associated with increased pain sensitivity and inflammation. High-intensity interval training (HIIT) has been suggested to reduce pain outcomes and inflammatory markers, but its effects compared to moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) remain unclear. This study aimed to evaluate the acute effects of HIIT on pain sensitivity and inflammatory markers in persons with CNSLBP compared to healthy controls (HCs) and to determine how these effects differ from MICT. Twenty persons with CNSLBP and twenty HCs were assessed before (PRE) and after (POST) a single HIIT and MICT protocol for pain sensitivity (cuff pressure pain threshold (cPPT), temporal summation of pain (TS), conditioned pain modulation (CPM)), and inflammatory markers (IL-6, TNF-α). Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVAs, paired t-tests, and correlation analyses. At PRE, persons with CNSLBP exhibited lower cPPT (28.2 ± 7.1, Δ = −5.5, p = 0.040), higher TS (1.11 ± 0.89, Δ = 0.79, p = 0.042), and lower CPM (36.2 ± 11.6, Δ = −10.0, p = 0.023) compared to HCs. HIIT resulted in PRE–POST improvements in cPPT (38.9 ± 12.6, Δ = 5.2, p = 0.019) in HCs. No PRE–POST differences were observed in pain processing in those with CLBP. No PRE or PRE–POST differences were observed in the inflammatory markers in either group. The current exploratory study suggests that a single HIIT session might have a beneficial effect on pain sensitivity in HCs but does not alter acute pain sensitivity or inflammatory markers in persons with CNSLBP. Further research is needed to clarify the involved mechanisms and explore the (relation with the) long-term effects of HIIT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise, Fitness, Human Performance and Health: 2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 1529 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of 4-Week Respiratory Muscle Training on Cardiopulmonary Parameters and Cognitive Function in Male Patients with OSA

by Vasileios T. Stavrou, George D. Vavougyios, Glykeria Tsirimona, Stylianos Boutlas, Marinela Santo, Georgios Hadjigeorgiou, Panagiotis Bargiotas and Konstantinos I. Gourgoulianis

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(5), 2532; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15052532 - 26 Feb 2025

Viewed by 629

Abstract

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of a 4-week respiratory muscle training (RMT) intervention versus continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) on cardiorespiratory parameters and cognitive function in patients with OSA. Twenty-eight male patients with OSA were divided into two groups (RMT_group n = 14 and CPAP_group n = 14) and we recorded cardiopulmonary parameters and completed the questionnaires for cognitive impairment (MoCA) and sleep quality (PSQI) before and after 4 weeks. We observed differences before and after the intervention in cardiopulmonary parameters: RMT_group: breathing reserve (p < 0.001) and oxygen breathing (p = 0.002), at the end of the exercise test and pulse-respiratory quotient at rest (p < 0.001), end of exercise (p = 0.020), and recovery (p < 0.001), mean arterial pressure (RMT_groupp = 0.035, CPAP_groupp = 0.032); cognitive function assessment: RMT_group: 7% improvement in MoCA_score (p < 0. 001). and in the attention–working memory domain by 13% (p = 0.001), CPAP_group: improvement in the short-term memory recall domain by 28% (p = 0.001) and in the visuospatial domain by 18% (p = 0.027); sleep quality scores: RMT_group: 22% improvement in PSQI_score (p = 0.013), and 50% reduction in ‘cannot breathe comfortably’ domain (p = 0.013), CPAP_group: 31% increase in ‘waking in the middle of the night or early in the morning’ domain (p = 0.044). Our findings support the implementation of RMT programs in patients with OSA as an effective and beneficial practice to promote exercise and reduce symptoms of sleep disturbance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise, Fitness, Human Performance and Health: 2nd Edition)

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24 pages, 1121 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Digital Health Engagement Among Asian Seniors: Investigating the Acceptance and Use of Fitness Apps in Promoting Healthy Aging

by Zu Hanqing, Xiaolong Chen, Hongfeng Zhang and Cora Un In Wong

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(5), 2294; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15052294 - 20 Feb 2025

Viewed by 314

Abstract

This study investigated how older Asian adults (aged 50+) accept fitness apps, focusing on experiential factors derived from the technology acceptance model (TAM) and the Diffusion of Innovations (DOI). Between December 2023 and March 2024, a convenience sampling method was used to recruit older adults with three months of experience using fitness apps from social media platforms and community groups in multiple Asian countries. Of the 700 initial respondents, 587 valid questionnaires were retained (an 83.8% validity rate). Structural equation modeling (SEM) assessed relationships among relative advantages, compatibility, trialability, gamification, observability, perceived ease of use (PEU), perceived usefulness (PU), behavioral intention, and actual usage. Trialability, relative advantages, and compatibility significantly enhanced PEU (p < 0.01), while gamification and observability did not. By contrast, gamification and observability positively influenced PU (p < 0.05). Both PEU and PU in turn predicted behavioral intention, which explained actual app usage (p < 0.01). These findings underscore the importance of designing fitness apps that accommodate older adults’ skills and preferences, while also incorporating engaging features that reinforce perceived usefulness. Healthcare professionals and developers may leverage these insights to tailor digital health interventions, potentially improving exercise habits and well-being among aging populations in Asia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise, Fitness, Human Performance and Health: 2nd Edition)

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23 pages, 327 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Three Pre-Season Training Protocols with Different Training Frequencies on Biochemical and Performance Markers in Professional Female Basketball Players

by Dimitrios Mexis, Tzortzis Nomikos and Nikolaos Kostopoulos

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(4), 1833; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15041833 - 11 Feb 2025

Viewed by 497

Abstract

This study examined the impact of three pre-season fitness training protocols with different training frequencies (heavy, moderate and light) on the physical abilities and the biochemical indicators of muscle damage and oxidative stress in female basketball athletes as expressed through physiological and biochemical assessments. Also, a comparison and a search for correlations were made between the physiological and biochemical changes that were caused by each protocol. The sample consisted of 28 professional female basketball athletes, who competed in three different teams, and each training protocol was assigned to each of the three teams. The somatometric and performance markers measured were as follows: weight, fat percentage, aerobic capacity, anaerobic capacity, vertical jumping ability, speed, acceleration, explosiveness and maximum lower body part strength. The biochemical measurements consisted of exercise-induced muscle damage (creatine kinase—CK, lactate dehydrogenase—LDH) and oxidative stress markers (protein carbonyls—PCs, glutathione peroxidase—GPx). The three fitness training protocols that were used improved the fitness status of high-level female basketball athletes after 6 weeks during the pre-season period, but they were also accompanied by some significant differences between them (fat percentage, anaerobic capacity, speed and acceleration). The results were also accompanied by an increase in CK and LDH for the three teams and by an increase in GPx for Teams 1 and 3. Also, we concluded that even 4 more or 4 less fitness training units (TUs) during a 6-week basketball preparation period can be considered important to differentiate the outcomes of physiological and biochemical markers. The purpose of this study was to provide more theoretical and practical knowledge to basketball coaches and trainers, so they can optimize the training process during the preparation period and thus maximize the performance of their athletes. Nevertheless, the present study was created with certain limitations, such as the small sample size for each team, the absence of a long-term follow-up or the lack of a control group. Future studies may need to turn their focus on fitness protocols with longer durations, try to differentiate the types of training protocols and attempt to achieve a better balance between maximizing performance and mitigating the muscle damage and oxidative stress levels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise, Fitness, Human Performance and Health: 2nd Edition)

14 pages, 1812 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exergaming-Based Rehabilitation for Lateral Trunk Flexion in Parkinson’s Disease: A Pilot Study

by Laura Mazzari, Elena Zambon, Serena Tonzar, Miriam Martini, Raffaele Sabot, Alessandra Galmonte and Paolo Manganotti

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(4), 1745; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15041745 - 8 Feb 2025

Viewed by 697

Abstract

(1) Background: Axial postural deformities represent a more common disabling motor complication in Parkinson’s disease. This study aims to investigate the clinical and neurophysiological effect of a rehabilitation treatment based on exergaming. (2) Methods: A pilot observational study was conducted on nine subjects affected by Parkinson’s disease and lateral trunk flexion, as well as on nine healthy controls with regard to some clinical and neurophysiological outcomes (3) Results: Statistically significant improvements were observed in all clinical assessment outcomes taken in to consideration: Berg balance scale (p = 0.0078), timed up and go tests (p = 0.03), degrees of lateral trunk inclination (p = 0.0039), and anterior/posterior trunk inclination (p = 0.0039). Regarding neurophysiological outcomes, the pressure pain threshold was enhanced and statistically significant in all areas assessed. Moreover, tensiomyography highlighted a statistically significant improvement in the maximal radial displacement of the ipsilateral erector spinae muscles. (4) Conclusions: The clinical and neurophysiological outcomes suggest both peripheral and central effects of exergaming. Peripherally, exergaming seems to lead to a postural trunk correction through a reduction in muscle stiffness in the ipsilateral erector spinae. Centrally, exergaming seems to lead to a central pain modulation through an upregulation of cortical connectivity associated with cognitive tasks. Taken together, these results also indicate that exergaming can be a feasible and enjoyable complement to traditional rehabilitation, potentially enhancing patients’ motivation and adherence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise, Fitness, Human Performance and Health: 2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 1382 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fat-to-Muscle Ratio: Exploring Associations with Motor Competence and Physical Fitness in 7-Year-Old Children

by Raquel Font-Lladó, Víctor López-Ros, Graham Sinclair, Fidanka Vasileva, Anna Jódar-Portas, Judit Homs and Anna Prats-Puig

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(3), 1665; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15031665 - 6 Feb 2025

Viewed by 611

Abstract

This study aimed (1) to explore the association between body composition [fat-to-muscle ratio (FMR), waist circumference (WC), and body mass index (BMI)] with motor competence (MC) and physical fitness (PFI) in 7-year-old children; (2) to ascertain whether FMR modifies the associations between MC and PF. A total of 164 children (7 yr) were included. Anthropometric (fat and muscle mass were calculated with TANITA), motor competence (CAMSA test) and physical fitness (1/2 mile run, handgrip strength, 10 × 5, standing long jump, and sit and reach tests) variables were collected. FMR, WC and BMI correlated negatively with MC (all between r ≤ −0.333 and −0.183 and p < 0.05) and PFI (all between r ≤ −0.410 and −0.246 and p < 0.05) in all children. However, the associations were stronger for FMR. In linear regressions analyses, only FMR was independently and negatively associated with MC and PFI, explaining 12.6% and 20.9% of its variance, respectively. Positive correlations between PFI and MC existed. Also, the association was not modified by FMR levels, since in both groups (above and below FMR median), the associations were maintained (p < 0.0001). However, the t-test showed that children with higher FMRs have lower levels of MC (p = 0.005) and PFI (p < 0.0001). FMR may be the best body composition parameter related to MC and PFI. Furthermore, the association between MC and PFI is not modulated by FMR but children with higher FMRs show lower levels of MC and PFI. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise, Fitness, Human Performance and Health: 2nd Edition)

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12 pages, 373 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects on Performance, Perception, and Awareness of Plyometric Training in Youth Volleyball: A Novel Methodological Approach to Training

by Gaetano Raiola, Giovanni Esposito, Sara Aliberti and Francesca D’Elia

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(3), 1581; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15031581 - 4 Feb 2025

Viewed by 796

Abstract

Plyometric training is known to improve jump height in volleyball, but few studies address athletes’ perception and awareness of its benefits. This gap limits its full potential for enhancing performance. This study examines young non-elite volleyball athletes’ awareness of plyometric training effects. A sample of 24 athletes (mean age 18.3 ± 3.8 years) was divided into an experimental group (EXP) and a control group (CON), each with 12 participants. The EXP group underwent plyometric training, while the CON group performed basic technical exercises. Performance and perceptions were assessed using the Spike Jump Test and surveys at pre-, mid-, and post-training phases. The EXP group showed significant vertical jump improvement, from a pre-training mean of 30.14 cm to 32.22 cm post-training, confirmed by the Friedman test (p = 0.00). In contrast, the CON group showed no significant changes (p = 0.47). Perception scores in the EXP group improved significantly, from 3.33 to 4.16, indicating enhanced awareness of plyometric training benefits, whereas the CON group showed no significant changes (p = 0.35). These findings highlight the dual benefits of plyometric training in improving both jump performance and awareness of its effectiveness, emphasizing the value of integrating perception into training for volleyball athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise, Fitness, Human Performance and Health: 2nd Edition)

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12 pages, 4874 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cyclical Physiology of Elite Female Athletes: Longitudinal Quantification of Wellness Parameters Considering Menstrual, Weekly, and Seasonal Variations

by Nolwenn Badier, Marine Dupuit, Gaëlle Dormion, Tom Chassard, Kilian Barlier, Alice Lafitte, Lidia Delrieu, Jean-François Toussaint and Juliana Antero

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(3), 1357; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15031357 - 28 Jan 2025

Viewed by 839

Abstract

The purpose of the study is to identify variations in wellness parameters among elite female athletes, considering simultaneously the influence of natural menstrual cycle (MC) or hormonal contraception (HC) phases and weekly and seasonal variations. A total of 54 elite female athletes were followed up with through a 6-month daily monitoring of their reported fitness, sleep quality, mood, and menstrual symptoms. Estimated cycle phases, days of the week, and seasons were all integrated into a single model to study cyclicities concomitantly. A total of 263 cycles were analyzed, totaling 7370 pieces of daily self-reported data. We observed more frequent symptoms during the menstruation and the pause phase. Reported fitness was greater in the mid-cycle and mood was lower at the end of the cycle for the MC group. Wellness parameters were rather stable for HC users. For both groups, symptoms were more frequent in summer. Reported fitness levels were lower on Monday, while mood scores were highest on Saturday and Sunday. In summer and autumn, fitness, sleep quality, and mood were greater. A cyclical wellness rhythm was identified in the menstrual cycle and persists even when considering weekdays and seasons cyclicities. This comprehensive approach helps to identify physiological influence on human behaviors, considering the specificities of women. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise, Fitness, Human Performance and Health: 2nd Edition)

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12 pages, 1302 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards Personalized Recovery in Handball? The Effects of Playing Positions and Player Role on Internal Match Load and Well-Being Responses in Female Players

by Carlos García-Sánchez, Raúl Nieto-Acevedo, Jorge Lorenzo-Calvo, Moisés Marquina Nieto, Rafael Manuel Navarro and Alfonso de la Rubia

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(3), 1228; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15031228 - 25 Jan 2025

Viewed by 587

Abstract

The aim of this study was to analyze the effects of the playing position (backs vs. pivots vs. wings) and the player role (starter vs. non-starter) on the internal match load and well-being status of female handball players after official matches. Fourteen female handball players from the Spanish 2nd Division were monitored during a half-season (13 matches, n = 102 individual observations) using the rate of perceived exertion (match RPE) and the Hooper questionnaire in MD+1 and MD+2. Differences in match RPE according to playing positions and player roles were determined by one-way ANOVA or by a paired t-test, respectively. Differences in well-being status according to playing positions or player roles and time (MD+1 and MD+2) were assessed through mixed two-way ANOVA. Furthermore, partial eta-squared (ηp²) and Cohen’s d (ES) were calculated and interpreted using Hopkins’ categorization criteria. Backs registered moderately more match RPE compared to pivots (p < 0.05, ES = 0.84). By contrast, wings experienced the highest values of fatigue and muscle soreness in MD+1 and MD+2 compared to all other playing positions (p < 0.05, ES = 0.66–0.93). Also, the wings reported moderately higher Hooper index scores in MD+1 and MD+2 than backs (p < 0.01, ES = 0.73–0.77). In relation to the player role, starters reported higher absolute values of match RPE, fatigue, muscle soreness, and the Hooper index in MD+1 compared to non-starters (p < 0.05, ES = 0.25–0.29). Additionally, regardless of the playing position and the role, all of the players reported moderately less fatigue and Hooper index scores in MD+2 compared to MD+1 (p < 0.05, ES = 0.66–1.34). Therefore, coaches and practitioners should consider the internal match load and well-being status of players to implement different training stimuli (e.g., recovery or compensatory strategies) in MD+1 according to playing positions and player roles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise, Fitness, Human Performance and Health: 2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 1946 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Neuromuscular Excitation Pattern in Expert Indoor Skydivers

by Susanna Rampichini, Eloisa Limonta, Irene Di Giulio, Marta Borrelli, Emiliano Cè, Giuseppe Coratella, Johnny Padulo, Stefano Longo and Fabio Esposito

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(2), 852; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15020852 - 16 Jan 2025

Viewed by 539

Abstract

The evolution of indoor skydiving from military origins to a globally recreational pursuit has attracted individuals without prior specific training, exposing them to the heightened risk of muscle–joint injuries associated with indoor skydiving. This study aims to assess the muscular excitation patterns in highly skilled instructors to determine the optimal activation strategies for preventing musculoskeletal injuries. Nine expert indoor skydiving instructors (M/F: 8/1; age 31 ± 7 years; body mass: 70.5 ± 11.1 kg; stature: 1.74 ± 0.09 m) were enrolled. The surface electromyographic signal was recorded on the anterior deltoid, AD; posterior deltoid, PD; pectoralis major, PM; latissimus dorsi, LD; rectus abdominis, Rabd; erector spinae, ES; rectus femoris, RF; and biceps femoris, BF for each position: PRONE, SUPINE, SIT, and head-down (HD). A synchronous heart rate was recorded to assess the cardiac engagement. The neuromuscular load (NeLo), representative of the excitation amplitude of a muscle set, was determined for each position across different body regions. PRONE and SUPINE were the least demanding in terms of cardiac engagement (67 ± 6 and 85 ± 8 bpm, respectively) and exhibited the lowest neuromuscular excitation (24 ± 10 and 24 ± 8% Max, respectively). By contrast, HD exhibited the highest cardiac (127 + 18 bpm) and neuromuscular (71 + 11% Max) engagement and particularly in the lower-trunk and lower-limbs muscles. SIT predominantly engaged upper-trunk and shoulder muscles. The findings indicate the significant engagement of the musculature surrounding the shoulder joint and that responsible for lower-trunk stabilization in maintaining the investigated positions. A targeted training regimen on strengthening these muscles is advised before practicing indoor skydiving to prevent shoulder joint injuries or lower back muscle overloads. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise, Fitness, Human Performance and Health: 2nd Edition)

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12 pages, 2124 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Incongruent 2-Minute Stroop Task Alters the Response Time Performance in Semi-Elite Soccer Players: A Pilot Study

by Andrés Prieto-Sánchez, Juan M. García-Ceberino, Juan Luis Leon-Llamas and Santos Villafaina

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(22), 10296; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142210296 - 8 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1015

Abstract

Introduction: Mental fatigue is a key factor in soccer that can affect physical performance. Mental fatigue protocols based on the Stroop test used in soccer involve extensive time, ranging from 10 to 30 min. Offering a protocol with a shorter duration that is more applicable in ecological situations seems to be an exciting challenge. Objective: To analyze the effects of a mental fatigue induction protocol (2 min Stroop test in its incongruent mode) on decision-making, response time, and technical execution accuracy in soccer players. Methods: A total of 18 semi-elite soccer male players, 25.83 (4.71) years from a Spanish soccer team, participated in this cross-sectional study. The 2 min incongruent Stroop test was used like mental fatigue protocol, followed by a specific analytical soccer task. The Wilcoxon signed-rank and Chi-squared tests were used to analyze the statistical differences. Results: A significant increase in participants’ response time after the fatigue protocol (p < 0.001; r = 0.878) was observed. Regarding the variables of correct decision (p = 0.457; r = 0.031) and technical execution accuracy (p = 1; r < 0.001), no significant differences were found. Additionally, no differences were observed between the first and second attempts of the 2 min incongruent Stroop test, in terms of execution accuracy, errors, or total words. Conclusions: The 2 min Stroop incongruent task may induce some degree of mental fatigue, leading to slower response time during certain technical tasks in semi-elite soccer players. However, this Stroop task was insufficient to promote significant changes in the accuracy of technical execution and the effectiveness of decision-making. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise, Fitness, Human Performance and Health: 2nd Edition)

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