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New Frontiers in Wood and Lignocellulosic-Based Materials for Industry and Cultural Heritage

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Materials Science and Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2021) | Viewed by 26700

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Prof. Dr. Manuela Romagnoli

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Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-Food and Forest Systems (DIBAF), University of Tuscia, Via S. Camillo Lellis, snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy
Interests: wood science; wood coatings; biobuilding; biorefinery; biomass; bioeconomy; nanotechnology in wood science and wood preservation; forest-wood chains
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Prof. Dr. Vladimir Gryc

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Department of Wood Science and Wood Technology, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
Interests: wood anatomy; wood formation; wood properties; wood quality

Dr. Federica Antonelli

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Co-Guest Editor

Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-Food and Forestry Systems (DIBAF), Tuscia University, Viterbo, Italy
Interests: conservation sciences; biodeterioration cultural heritage; archaeological wood; stone artefacts
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

New processes and protocols which are useful in physics, inorganic and organic chemistry and biology are still not being fully exploited in applied sciences such as material science. This is particularly true when considering wood and lignocellulosic materials, which usually assume a secondary role compared to finer materials. With this Special Issue, we would like to collect papers on new frontiers coming from physics, chemistry, and biology, new chemical compounds, instruments and processes (like biotechnology), to be applied in order to obtain a full knowledge and exploitation of the quality of wood and lignocellulosic based products, including biocomposites. Special applications will be considered in the conservation and restoration of wooden and lignocellulosic cultural heritage and in several industry sectors such as bio-building and furniture, automotive, and paper. We will also consider contributions dealing with wood and lignocellulosic treatments and modifications with the perspective to promote an economic growth and to form new value chains at high added value.

Prof. Manuela Romagnoli
Guest Editor

Prof. Vladimir Gryc
Dr. Federica Antonelli
Co-Guest Editors

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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13 pages, 1733 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Thermal Modification and Impregnation with Biocides on Physical Properties of Italian Stone Pine Wood (Pinus pinea L.)

by Marco De Angelis, Miha Humar, Davor Kržišnik, Swati Tamantini and Manuela Romagnoli

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(8), 3801; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12083801 - 9 Apr 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1689

Abstract

The sudden availability of Italian stone pine (Pinus pinea L.) wood due to the infestation of pathogenic fungi and insects highlighted the need to promote its use as a short supply chain resource in Italy and other Mediterranean countries. However, the durability of stone pine sapwood must be enhanced if outdoor use is to be considered. The impregnability of stone pine wood was studied following the standard EN 351-1:2008, using immersion, vacuum, and high-pressure methods with natural waxes and organic solvent-based and copper-amino-based preservative solutions. The efficacy of the impregnation was determined by calculating the kilos of preservative absorbed per cubic meter of wood and by measuring the penetration depth of the preservative. Thermal modifications were carried out using five different maximum temperatures, and their efficacy was determined by measuring the mass loss and color change. Subsequent to thermal treatments, the wood was exposed to a water-vapor-saturated atmosphere, and the increase in mass was calculated for different periods. Stone pine and Scots pine sapwoods showed similar response to the treatments with the exception of soaking impregnation methods where stone pine showed higher uptake, in particular when Silvanolin was used. Our investigation shows that stone pine can be a suitable short supply chain resource in Italy that, when impregnated, could be tested for outdoor use, exactly as is the case with Scots pine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Frontiers in Wood and Lignocellulosic-Based Materials for Industry and Cultural Heritage)

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10 pages, 8627 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Temperature and Pressure of Supercritical CO₂ on Dewatering, Shrinkage and Stresses of Eucalyptus Wood

by Lin Yang

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(18), 8730; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11188730 - 18 Sep 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 1741

Abstract

Supercritical CO₂ (SuCO₂) dewatering can mitigate capillary tension and reduce wood collapse. In this study, Eucalyptus urophylla × E. grandis specimens were dewatered by SuCO₂ at temperatures of 35, 40 and 55 °C, in pressures of 10 and 30 MPa, respectively, for 1h. Effects of temperature and pressure on dewatering rate, moisture content (MC) distribution and gradient, shrinkage and residual stress of wood after dewatering were investigated. The results indicate that the SuCO₂ dewatering rate is much faster than that of conventional kiln drying (CKD). The dewatering rate increases with increasing of temperature and pressure; however, pressure has a significant influence, especially for the high-temperature dewatering process; the MC distribution after 1h dewatering is uneven and MC gradients decrease with reducing of mean final MC of wood. MC gradients along radial direction are much smaller than that in tangential direction; collapse of wood significantly reduces after dewatering due to SuCO₂ decreasing the capillary tension, and residual stress of wood during dewatering is mainly caused by pressure of SuCO₂, which decreases with increasing temperature. SuCO₂ dewatering has great potential advantages in water-removal of wood prone to collapse or deformation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Frontiers in Wood and Lignocellulosic-Based Materials for Industry and Cultural Heritage)

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10 pages, 1293 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of One-Sided Surface Charring of Beech Wood on Density Profile and Surface Wettability

by Vít Šeda, Dita Machová, Jakub Dohnal, Jakub Dömény, Lucie Zárybnická, Anna Oberle, Veronika Vacenovská and Petr Čermák

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(9), 4086; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11094086 - 29 Apr 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 1952

Abstract

One-sided surface charred European beech wood (Fagus sylvatica L.) was studied. Radial and tangential specimens of dimensions of 50 × 25 × 350 mm were one-sided surface charred at 200, 250, 300, 350, and 400 °C for various times using a contact heating system. Specimens of dimensions of 50 × 25 × 50 mm³ were prepared for treatment intensity analysis and its effect on surface wettability. Density profiles of the radial and tangential charred specimens were determined using X-ray densitography with a resolution of 0.05 mm. The wettability of the one-sided surface charred wood specimens was analyzed via contact angle, measured using the sessile drop method and determined over 10 to 150 s. The oven-dried specimens were partially submerged in water and water uptake was recorded after 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 48, and 72 h according to EN-927-5. The surface density of the radial specimen groups charred at 200 °C for 6 min and 250 °C for 4 min decreased by about 4.5 to 8.2%. With increasingly severe charring, the surface density decreased by about 15.5 to 33.5%. A mild charring process produced a surface charred layer of approx. 2 mm, while higher temperatures and longer times affected the density up to 4–6 mm beneath the surface. Differences were found between the water uptake of the radial and tangential charred beech specimens. The most significant decrease of 56% in water uptake was recorded for the radial group prepared at 200 °C for 20 min after floating in water for 72 h. Water uptake in the radial groups modified at 250 °C for 4 and 6 min after 72 h decreased by 38% and 36%, respectively. The tangential groups did not show any statistically significant decrease. The average water uptake of the groups charred at 200 °C for 20 min, 350 °C for 2 min and 400 °C for 1 min was greater than that of the reference; the variability of the measured data was significantly greater due to the highly anisotropic character of the tangential specimens. Micro cracks were also visible on the surface. Concluding from the results of this study, one-sided surface charred beech wood exhibits increased potential in terms of wood–water related properties when a temperature range of 200–400 °C is applied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Frontiers in Wood and Lignocellulosic-Based Materials for Industry and Cultural Heritage)

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14 pages, 2803 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relationships between the Macrostructure Features and Acoustic Parameters of Resonance Spruce for Piano Soundboards

by Ginevra Manzo, Jan Tippner and Petr Zatloukal

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(4), 1749; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11041749 - 16 Feb 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1543

Abstract

An experimental examination of the relationship between the macrostructure characteristics and the acoustic properties of Norway spruce was performed. The macrostructure features were found to comprise the density (ρ), percentage of latewood (%LW), slope of grain (α), and angle the annual rings in a cross section (β). The main acoustic parameters of the research were the sound velocity, dynamic Young’s modulus, acoustic impedance (Z), and radiation coefficient (R). The acoustic properties for both the cross section and the longitudinal direction were calculated. Non-destructive evaluation (NDE) is the appropriate approach to define acoustic properties. Ultrasonic direct transmission and a transitory excitation method were used to calculate and compare the acoustic properties. A modal analysis was performed to predict the frequency range that corresponded to the different mode shapes. There were no significant differences between the two methods, yet an 80% reduction of the velocity, Z and R was identified between the longitudinal direction and the cross section. The equations used to define acoustic radiation according to the latewood component were defined, and strong correlations between the macrostructure and acoustic parameters were confirmed. A tight relationship was observed between the reduction of sound velocity and material density exceeding 440 kg m⁻³. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Frontiers in Wood and Lignocellulosic-Based Materials for Industry and Cultural Heritage)

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12 pages, 2062 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Moderate Temperature Thermal Modification Combined with Wax Impregnation on Wood Properties

by Jing-Wen Zhang, Hong-Hai Liu, Lin Yang, Tian-Qi Han and Qin Yin

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(22), 8231; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10228231 - 20 Nov 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1959

Abstract

Thermal modification (TM) improves the hydrophobicity, dimensional stability, and durability of wood, but TM commonly results in severe color change and mechanical strength loss as wood is treated at higher temperature. In this study, Pterocarpus macrocarpus Kurz wood was thermally modified at moderate temperature (150 °C) and higher temperature (200 °C), and subsequently TM wood at 150 °C was subjected to wax impregnation (WI), the effect of a combination of TM and WI on the hygroscopicity, dimensional stability, and mechanical properties, as well as the micro-structure of wood, were investigated and compared. The results showed that the mass loss of wood was slight at 150 °C TM, while it became severe at 200 °C TM conditions. TM conditions affected the amount of the subsequent wax impregnation; the equilibrium moisture content (EMC), water absorption ratio, and adsorption and absorption swelling of the 150 °C TM + WI group were lower than that of 200 °C TM, and presented the lowest value. Moderate temperature TM could improve the hydrophobicity and dimensional stability of wood, but WI played a key role in the improvement. TM decreased the modulus of rupture (MOR) of wood, while WI improved the MOR. TM increased the modulus of elasticity (MOE) of wood, but WI had little effect on MOE; Scanning electron microscope (SEM) observation showed that the wax was successfully impregnated into the wood interior, and presented an even distribution on the internal surfaces of wood cells; Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) spectra verified the changes of –OH and C=O after TM and TM + WI, which contributed to decreasing hygroscopicity and improving the dimensional stability of the wood. Impregnated wax improved wood mechanical strength, but decreased the lightness, and deepened the color of wood. The combination of thermal modification at moderate temperature with subsequent wax impregnation is a practical approach for improving wood properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Frontiers in Wood and Lignocellulosic-Based Materials for Industry and Cultural Heritage)

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13 pages, 1701 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Resistance to Fire of the Bark-Based Panels Bonded with Clay

by Eugenia Mariana Tudor, Christoph Scheriau, Marius Catalin Barbu, Roman Réh, Ľuboš Krišťák and Thomas Schnabel

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(16), 5594; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10165594 - 12 Aug 2020

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 3303

Abstract

The aim of this study was to investigate the flammability of ecologically friendly, 100% natural larch and poplar bark-based panels bonded with clay. The clay acted as a fire retardant, and it improved the fire resistance of the boards by 12–15% for the surface and 27–39% for the edge of the testing specimens. The thermal conductivity was also analyzed. Although the panels had a density ranging from 600 to 900 kg/m³, thermal conductivity for the panel with a density of 600 kg/m³ was excellent, and it was comparable to lightweight insulation panels with much lower densities. Besides that, the advantage of the bark clay boards, as an insulation material, is mostly in an accumulative capacity similar to wood cement boards, and it can significantly improve the climatic stability of indoor spaces that have low ventilation rates. Bark boards with clay, similar to wood cement composites (wood wool cement composites and wood particle cement composites), have low mechanical properties and elasticity. Therefore, there their use is limited to non-structural paneling applications. These ecologically friendly, 100% natural and recyclable composites can be mostly used with respect to their thermal insulation, acoustics and fire resistance properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Frontiers in Wood and Lignocellulosic-Based Materials for Industry and Cultural Heritage)

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12 pages, 1826 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling the Long-Term Deformation of a Geodesic Spherical Frame Structure Made from Wood Plastic Composite Lumber

by Murtada Abass A. Alrubaie, Douglas J. Gardner and Roberto A. Lopez-Anido

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(14), 5017; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10145017 - 21 Jul 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2661

Abstract

The long-term deformation of a geodesic spherical frame structure with a diameter of 20 m made from wood plastic composite (WPC) lumber (struts) is described using the Norton-Bailey power law model to predict the service life creep behavior (the creep strain ( [...] Read more.

ε_{c r}

)) of the WPC. The Norton-Bailey power law model parameters, A the power law multiplier, n the stress order, and m the time order, were obtained from experimental four-point bending flexural creep measurements of WPC lumber subjected to three levels of flexural stress: 7, 14, and 29% of the ultimate flexural strength for 200 days. The parameters obtained from the experiments showed good agreement to the model of the WPC lumber in flexure. The Norton-Bailey power law parameters were then implemented to describe the long-term deformation of the spherical frame structure. The limit of failure was considered when the WPC creep strain reaches the value of 1%. However, the FEA predicted the maximum creep strain to be 20% of the failure strain. This modeling approach is considered useful to describe and predict the long-term deformation of aquacultural structures made from viscoelastic materials during the envisioned service life (10 years) based on experimental creep data for the members that form the structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Frontiers in Wood and Lignocellulosic-Based Materials for Industry and Cultural Heritage)

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21 pages, 2623 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microbiota in Waterlogged Archaeological Wood: Use of Next-Generation Sequencing to Evaluate the Risk of Biodegradation

by Federica Antonelli, Alfonso Esposito, Giulia Galotta, Barbara Davidde Petriaggi, Silvano Piazza, Manuela Romagnoli and Francesca Guerrieri

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(13), 4636; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10134636 - 4 Jul 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3134

Abstract

Waterlogged archaeological wood (WAW) is considered a precious material, first-hand account of past civilizations. Like any organic material, it is subjected to biodegradative action of microorganisms whose activity could be particularly fast and dangerous during the phases of excavation, storage and restoration. The present work aimed to characterize the microorganisms present in WAW during these tricky periods to evaluate the biological risk it is exposed to. The bacterial and fungal communities inhabiting woods coming from two archaeological sites (Pisa and Naples) were investigated through Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS). High-throughput sequencing of extracted DNA fragments was performed using the reversible terminator-based sequencing chemistry with the Illumina MiSeq platform. The analyses revealed that the two archaeological sites showed distinct richness and biodiversity, as expected. In all the WAWs, the bacterial community harbored mainly Proteobacteria, whereas Bacteroidetes was well represented only in Naples communities and taxa belonging to the phyla Chloroflexi only in the Pisa site. Concerning the fungal community, the two sites were dominated by different phyla: Ascomycota for Naples samples and Basidiomycota for Pisa. Interestingly, most of the identified bacterial and fungal taxa have cellulolytic or ligninolytic ability. These results provide new and useful background information concerning the composition of WAW microbiota and the threat it represents for this precious material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Frontiers in Wood and Lignocellulosic-Based Materials for Industry and Cultural Heritage)

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Review

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16 pages, 486 KiB

Open AccessReview

Green and Efficient Processing of Wood with Supercritical CO₂: A Review

by Jingwen Zhang, Lin Yang and Honghai Liu

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(9), 3929; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11093929 - 26 Apr 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3122

Abstract

Wood processing is a crucial step of wood utilization, but the adding of environmentally hazardous feedstocks and the use of unreasonable technology allow it to harm the environment and human health. Supercritical CO₂ (scCO₂) is a non-toxic, odorless, and safe solvent, which is widely used in studies and industrial production, but there is no review summarizing wood processing with scCO₂. The unique structure and chemical properties of wood combined with scCO₂ technology produce positive results. In this paper, wood processing with scCO₂ is summarized, including wood impregnation, wood drying, wood thermochemical conversion, and wood extraction. The green and efficient characteristics of wood processing with scCO₂ are explained in detail for researchers, engineers, and investors to provide a clean wood processing method. Further study is needed to reduce its energy consumption and commercialize it eventually. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Frontiers in Wood and Lignocellulosic-Based Materials for Industry and Cultural Heritage)

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25 pages, 2911 KiB

Open AccessReview

Analytical Pyrolysis and Mass Spectrometry to Characterise Lignin in Archaeological Wood

by Jeannette Jacqueline Lucejko, Diego Tamburini, Francesca Modugno, Erika Ribechini and Maria Perla Colombini

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(1), 240; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11010240 - 29 Dec 2020

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4306

Abstract

This review describes the capability of analytical pyrolysis-based techniques to provide data on lignin composition and on the chemical alteration undergone by lignin in archaeological wooden objects. Applications of Direct Exposure Mass Spectrometry (DE-MS), Evolved Gas Analysis Mass Spectrometry (EGA-MS), and single and double-shot Pyrolysis-Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) in archaeological lignin characterisation are described. With comparison to cellulose and hemicelluloses, lignin is generally less prone to most degradation processes affecting archaeological artefacts in burial environments, especially waterlogged ones, which are the most favourable for wood preservation. Nevertheless, lignin also undergoes significant chemical changes. As wood from waterlogged environments is mainly composed of lignin, knowledge of its chemical structure and degradation pathways is fundamental for choosing preventive conservation conditions and for optimising consolidation methods and materials, which directly interact with the residual lignin. Analytical pyrolysis coupled with mass spectrometry, used in several complementary operational modes, can gather information regarding the chemical modifications and the state of preservation of lignin, especially concerning oxidation and depolymerisation phenomena. Several applications to the analysis of wood from archaeological artefacts affected by different conservation problems are presented to showcase the potential of analytical pyrolysis in various scenarios that can be encountered when investigating archaeological waterlogged wood. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Frontiers in Wood and Lignocellulosic-Based Materials for Industry and Cultural Heritage)

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